Abnormal accumulation of the presynaptic protein α-synuclein has recently been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Because neurodegeneration in these conditions might be associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, the effects of α-synuclein were investigated in a hypothalamic neuronal cell line (GT1-7). α-Synuclein overexpression in these cells resulted in formation of α-synuclein-immunopositive inclusion-like structures and mitochondrial alterations accompanied by increased levels of free radicals and decreased secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone. These alterations were ameliorated by pretreatment with anti-oxidants such as vitamin E. Taken together these results suggest that abnormal accumulation of α-synuclein could lead to mitochondrial alterations that may result in oxidative stress and, eventually, cell death. Abnormal accumulation of the presynaptic protein α-synuclein has recently been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Because neurodegeneration in these conditions might be associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, the effects of α-synuclein were investigated in a hypothalamic neuronal cell line (GT1-7). α-Synuclein overexpression in these cells resulted in formation of α-synuclein-immunopositive inclusion-like structures and mitochondrial alterations accompanied by increased levels of free radicals and decreased secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone. These alterations were ameliorated by pretreatment with anti-oxidants such as vitamin E. Taken together these results suggest that abnormal accumulation of α-synuclein could lead to mitochondrial alterations that may result in oxidative stress and, eventually, cell death. Alpha-synuclein (or the precursor of the non-Aβ component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid) is a 19-kd presynaptic protein1Maroteaux L Campanelli JT Scheller RH Synuclein: a neuron-specific protein localized to the nucleus and presynaptic nerve terminal.J Neurosci. 1988; 8: 2804-2815Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 2Ueda K Fukushima H Masliah E Xia Y Iwai A Otero D Kondo J Ihara Y Saitoh T Molecular cloning of cDNA encoding an unrecognized component of amyloid in Alzheimer disease.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993; 90: 11282-11286Crossref PubMed Scopus (1203) Google Scholar, 3Jakes R Spillantini MG Goedert M Identification of two distinct synucleins from human brain.FEBS Lett. 1994; 345: 27-32Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (891) Google Scholar from which a 35-amino acid peptide is derived and found in Alzheimer's disease plaques.2Ueda K Fukushima H Masliah E Xia Y Iwai A Otero D Kondo J Ihara Y Saitoh T Molecular cloning of cDNA encoding an unrecognized component of amyloid in Alzheimer disease.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993; 90: 11282-11286Crossref PubMed Scopus (1203) Google Scholarα-Synuclein belongs to an expanding family of synuclein proteins and is homologous to rat and torpedo α-synuclein4Maroteaux L Scheller RH The rat brain synucleins; family of proteins transiently associated with neuronal membrane.Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1991; 11: 335-343Crossref PubMed Scopus (289) Google Scholar and the zebra finch synelfin.5George JM Jin H Woods WS Clayton DF Characterization of a novel protein regulated during the critical period for song learning in the zebra finch.Neuron. 1995; 15: 361-372Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (717) Google Scholar Other members of the synuclein family include β-synuclein6Nakajo S Tsukada K Omata K Nakamura Y Nakaya K A new brain-specific 14-kDa protein is a phosphoprotein. Its complete amino acid sequence and evidence for phosphorylation.Eur J Biochem. 1993; 217: 1057-1063Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar and γ-synuclein, or persyn7Ninkina NN Alimova-Kost MV Paterson JW Delaney L Cohen BB Imreh S Gnuchev NV Davies AM Buchman VL Organization, expression and polymorphism of the human persyn gene.Hum Mol Genet. 1998; 7: 1417-1424Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar, 8Alimova-Kost MV Ninkina NN Imreh S Gnuchev NV Adu J Davies AM Buchman VL Genomic structure and chromosomal localization of the mouse persyn gene.Genomics. 1999; 56: 224-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar and a recently identified protein, synoretin.9Surguchov A Surgucheva I Solessio E Baehr W Synoretin-A new protein belonging to the synuclein family.Mol Cell Neurosci. 1999; 13: 95-103Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar Recent studies have shown that mutations in the α-synuclein gene lead to rare familial forms of Parkinson's disease (PD), a disorder characterized by nigral degeneration and formation of inclusions, denominated Lewy bodies (LBs). In these two reports, Polymeropoulos et al10Polymeropoulos MH Lavedant C Leroy E Ide SE Dehejia A Dutra A Pike B Root H Rubenstein J Boyer R Stenroos ES Chandrasekharappa S Athanassiadou A Papapetropulos T Johnson WG Lazzarini AM Duvoisin RC Diorio G Golbe LI Nussbaum RL Mutation in the alpha-synuclein gene identified in families with Parkinson's disease.Science. 1997; 276: 2045-2047Crossref PubMed Scopus (6556) Google Scholar identified a mutation (A53T) in an Italian and Greek kindred which conferred susceptibility to early-onset PD. Subsequent analysis by Kruger et al11Kruger R Kuhn W Muller T Woitalla D Graeber M Kosel S Przuntek H Epplen J Schols L Riess O Ala30Pro mutation in the gene encoding alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease.Nat Genet. 1998; 18: 106-108Crossref PubMed Scopus (3280) Google Scholar revealed another missense mutation (A30P) found in a German familial case of PD. Furthermore, in the more frequent forms of sporadic PD and other forms of LB disease there is significant α-synuclein aggregation in LBs and neurites.12Wakabayashi K Matsumoto K Takayama K Yoshimoto M Takahashi H NACP, a presynaptic protein, immunoreactivity in Lewy bodies in Parkinson's disease.Neurosci Lett. 1997; 239: 45-48Crossref PubMed Scopus (281) Google Scholar, 13Goedert M Spillantini MG Lewy body diseases and multiple system atrophy as alpha-synucleinopathies.Mol Psychol. 1998; 3: 462-465Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar, 14Mezey E Dehejia AM Harta G Suchy SF Nussbaum RL Brownstein MJ Polymeropoulos MH Alpha synuclein is present in Lewy bodies in sporadic Parkinson's disease.Mol Psychol. 1998; 3: 493-499Crossref PubMed Scopus (106) Google Scholar, 15Spillantini MG Crowther RA Jakes R Hasegawa M Goedert M Alpha-synuclein in filamentous inclusions of Lewy bodies from Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998; 95: 6469-6473Crossref PubMed Scopus (2366) Google Scholar, 16Takeda A Mallory M Sundsmo M Honer W Hansen L Masliah E Abnormal accumulation of NACP/alpha-synuclein in neurodegenerative disorders.Am J Pathol. 1998; 152: 367-372PubMed Google Scholar, 17Trojanowski JQ Lee VM Aggregation of neurofilament and alpha-synuclein proteins in Lewy bodies: implications for the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease and Lewy body dementia.Arch Neurol. 1998; 55: 151-152Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar The mechanisms through which α-synuclein might lead to neurodegeneration in LB disease are not yet completely understood. Recent studies have shown that overexpression of wild-type and mutant α-synuclein leads to synaptic degeneration18Masliah E Rockenstein E Veinbergs I Mallory M Hashimoto M Takeda A Sagara Y Sisk A Mucke L Dopaminergic loss and inclusion body formation in alpha-synuclein mice: implications for neurodegenerative disorders.Science. 2000; 287: 1265-1269Crossref PubMed Scopus (1547) Google Scholar and cell death19El-Agnaf OM Jakes R Curran MD Middleton D Ingenito R Bianchi E Pessi A Neill D Wallace A Aggregates from mutant and wild-type alpha-synuclein proteins and NAC peptide induce apoptotic cell death in human neuroblastoma cells by formation of beta-sheet and amyloid-like filaments.FEBS Lett. 1998; 440: 71-75Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (327) Google Scholar, 20Feany MB Bender WW A Drosophila model of Parkinson's disease.Nature. 2000; 404: 394-398Crossref PubMed Scopus (1685) Google Scholar in both in vivo and in vitro model systems. The role of abnormal expression of α-synuclein in LB disease is currently being explored. However, in vitro studies have shown that increasing levels,21Hashimoto M Hsu LJ Sisk A Xia Y Takeda A Sundsmo M Masliah E Human recombinant NACP/α-synuclein is aggregated and fibrillated in vitro: Relevance for Lewy body disease.Brain Res. 1998; 799: 301-306Crossref PubMed Scopus (247) Google Scholar mutations,22Narhi L Wood SJ Stevenson S Jiang Y Wu GM Anafi D Kaufman SA Martin F Sitnev K Denis P Louis JC Wypych J Biere AL Citron M Both familial Parkinson's disease mutations accelerate alpha-synuclein aggregation.J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 9843-9846Crossref PubMed Scopus (617) Google Scholar and oxidative stress23Hashimoto M Hsu LJ Xia Y Takeda A Sundsmo M Masliah E Oxidative stress induces amyloid-like aggregate formation of NACP/α-synuclein in vitro.NeuroReport. 1999; 10: 717-721Crossref PubMed Scopus (377) Google Scholar conditions lead to α-synuclein aggregation. Furthermore, abnormal accumulation of α-synuclein might trigger mitochondrial dysfunction. Supporting this, there is ample evidence for a central role for mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of PD.24Shin-ichiro I Tanaka M Ozawa T Point mutations of mitochondrial genome in Parkinson's disease.Mol Brain Res. 1995; 28: 281-295Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar, 25Swerdlow RH Parks JK Miller SW Tuttle JB Trimmer PA Sheehan JP Bennett Jr, JP Davis RE Parker Jr, WD Origin and functional consequences of the complex I defect in Parkinson's disease.Ann Neurol. 1996; 40: 663-671Crossref PubMed Scopus (578) Google Scholar, 26Blandini F Nappi G Greenamyre T Quantitative study of mitochondrial complex I in platelets of parkinsonian patients.Mov Disord. 1998; 13: 11-15Crossref PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar, 27Mizuno Y Yoshino H Shin-ichiro I Hattori N Kobayashi T Shimoda-Matsubayashi S Matsumine H Kondo T Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.Ann Neurol. 1998; 44: S99-S109Crossref PubMed Scopus (150) Google Scholar, 28Schapira AHV Gu M Taanman J-W Tabrizi SJ Seaton T Cleeter M Cooper JM Mitochondria in the etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.Ann Neurol. 1998; 44: S89-S98Crossref PubMed Scopus (206) Google Scholar In this context, the main objective of the present study was to determine whether overexpression of α-synuclein might dysregulate cell function via mitochondrial alterations. For this purpose, a murine hypothalamic tumor cell line (GT1-7)29Mellon PL Windle JJ Goldsmith PC Padula CA Roberts JL Weiner RI Immortalization of hypothalamic GnRH neurons by genetically targeted tumorigenesis.Neuron. 1990; 5: 1-10Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (894) Google Scholar was transfected with α-synuclein and analyzed for pathological and physiological effects. We present evidence that overexpression of α-synuclein in this cell system leads to mitochondrial abnormalities and corresponding changes in oxidative stress markers. These studies support the contention that α-synuclein might play a role in the regulation of mitochondrial function and that alterations in this pathway may be involved in the pathogenesis of PD. The GT1-7 murine hypothalamic tumor cell line (kindly provided by Dr. Pam Mellon, Department of Neurosciences, University of California at San Diego) was selected because of its neuronal origin, expression of many neuronal markers, ability to form synapses in culture, and neurosecretory properties which may represent neurotransmitter-like activity.29Mellon PL Windle JJ Goldsmith PC Padula CA Roberts JL Weiner RI Immortalization of hypothalamic GnRH neurons by genetically targeted tumorigenesis.Neuron. 1990; 5: 1-10Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (894) Google Scholar Cells were maintained at 37°C, 5% CO2 in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (high glucose), supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Hyclone, Logan, UT), and 1% v/v penicillin/streptomycin. The murine α-synuclein cDNA sequence was obtained as previously described.30Hsu LJ Mallory M Xia Y Veinbergs I Hashimoto M Yoshimoto M Thal LJ Saitoh T Masliah E Expression pattern of synucleins (non-Abeta component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein/alpha-synuclein) during murine brain development.J Neurochem. 1998; 71: 338-344Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar Briefly, using this plasmid as a template, the coding region was once again amplified except that a simple polymerase chain reaction was used with the annealing temperature of 55°C instead of the touchdown program. The amplified product was run out on a 0.8% agarose gel, purified via the phenol/chloroform extraction technique, and ligated into a pCR3.1 T-vector (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). The clones, which contained either the sense or antisense construct, were selected, verified by sequencing, and amplified via the Qiagen Maxi-Prep kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). These clones were referred to as #1 and #9B, respectively. GT1-7 cells were seeded to ∼50% confluence in 60-mm tissue culture dishes. The Superfect transfection kit (Qiagen) was used to transfect cells with plasmids #1, #9B, and pCR3.1 (vector alone). Briefly, plasmid DNA (7.5 μg) was diluted with 200 μl of serum-free OPTI-MEM (Life Technologies, Inc., Grand Island, NY) and 40 μl of the Superfect reagent was added to this mix. Cells were incubated for 3 hours at 37°C, washed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and cultured for 12 hours in regular cell media. The optimal concentration of G418 sulfate needed for complete cell death in GT1-7 untransfected cells was obtained after a 3-day treatment with various concentrations. G418 (300 μg/ml) was added to the regular media after transfection and replaced every 3 days. After 3 weeks, cloning rings were used to select colonies and cells were screened for expression via the ribonuclease protection assay (RPA), Western blot, and immunocytochemical analysis. After the initial screening, essentially four clones were selected: 1) sense-transfected (overexpressers), 2) antisense-transfected (underexpressers), 3) vector (VEC)-transfected, and 4) nontransfected wild-type controls. Briefly, as previously described, riboprobe templates were amplified by polymerase chain reaction.30Hsu LJ Mallory M Xia Y Veinbergs I Hashimoto M Yoshimoto M Thal LJ Saitoh T Masliah E Expression pattern of synucleins (non-Abeta component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein/alpha-synuclein) during murine brain development.J Neurochem. 1998; 71: 338-344Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar For the murine α-synuclein template, primers (20 mers) started at nucleotide 145 and nucleotide 490 of mouse α-synuclein (GenBank Accession No. AF044672), respectively. An actin riboprobe complementary to nucleotides 480 to 559 of mouse β-actin was used (GenBank Accession No. M18194). RPAs were carried out with [32P]-labeled antisense riboprobes, and signals were quantitated with a PhosphorImager and ImageQuant software, as previously described.31Rockenstein EM McConlogue L Tan H Power M Masliah E Mucke L Levels and alternative splicing of amyloid β-protein precursor (APP) transcripts in brains of APP transgenic mice and humans with Alzheimer's disease.J Biol Chem. 1995; 270: 28257-28267Crossref PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar Actin signals were used to correct for variations in mRNA content and loading. Western blots were analyzed with the affinity-purified rabbit polyclonal antibody directed against C-terminal α-synuclein (amino acids 131 to 140).32Iwai A Masliah E Yoshimoto M de Silva R Ge N Kittel A Saitoh T The precursor protein of non-Aβ component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid (NACP) is a presynaptic protein of the central nervous system.Neuron. 1994; 14: 467-475Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (1111) Google Scholar Briefly, cell pellets were sonicated and separated into cytosolic and particulate fractions33Schapira AHV Mitochondrial involvement in Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, hereditary spastic paraplegia and Friedreich's ataxia.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1999; 1410: 159-170Crossref PubMed Scopus (285) Google Scholar and protein levels were determined by the method of Lowry et al.34Lowry OH Rosenbrough NJ Farr AL Randall RJ Protein measurement with Folin phenol reagent.J Biol Chem. 1951; 193: 265-272Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar Gels were blotted onto nitrocellulose paper and incubated with antibodies against α-synuclein, (1:1000) followed by 125I-protein A. Blots were also stripped and reprobed with a mouse monoclonal antibody against actin (Chemicon, Temecula, CA) to correct for loading variability. The specific19-kd signals corresponding to murine α-synuclein were quantified using the ImageQuant software. Briefly, as previously described35Van Uden E Carlson G Mallory M Rockenstein E Orlando R Masliah E Aberrant Presenilin-1 expression downregulates LDL receptor-related protein (LRP): is LRP central to Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis?.Mol Cell Neurosci. 1999; 14: 129-140Crossref PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar cells were seeded onto poly-l-lysine-coated glass coverslips, grown to 60% confluence, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde (30 minutes, −4°C), and pretreated with 0.1%Triton X-100 in PBS (20 minutes, room temperature). Cells were incubated overnight at 4°C with antibodies against α-synuclein (rabbit polyclonal) and microtubule-associated protein 2 (mouse monoclonal) (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, IN). Cells were then incubated with the biotinylated anti-rabbit secondary antibody (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA), followed by tyramide signal amplification-Direct Red (Dupont-NEN, Boston, MA) and fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated anti-mouse secondary antibody (Vector). Wild-type and VEC-transfected GT1-7 cells were run in parallel as negative controls. Coverslips were air-dried overnight, mounted on slides with antifading media (Vectashield, Vector), and imaged with the confocal microscope (MRC1024; BioRad). To determine whether levels of α-synuclein expression affected the secretory activity of GT1-7 cells, levels of GnRH release were investigated by radioimmunoassay, essentially as previously described.36Lopez FL Moretto M Merchenthaler I Negro-Vilar A Nitric oxide is involved in the genesis of pulsatile LHRH secretion from immortalized LHRH neurons.J Neuroendocrinol. 1997; 9: 647-654Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar Briefly, tubes were incubated overnight at 4°C with 200 μl of 0.1%Triton-PO4 buffer (0.063 mol/L Na2HPO4, 0.013 mol/L ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, 0.02% NaN3, 0.1% Triton X-100, pH 7.4), 1% normal rabbit serum, and 100 μl of primary SD-7 antibody, (1:30,000) followed by 100 μl of 125I-GnRH (5000 to 6000 cpm; Dupont-NEN) was added to each tube. On the third day, 100 μl of goat anti-rabbit γ globulin secondary antibody (1:25, Calbiochem, San Diego, CA) in 50 mmol/L ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid buffer (in 0.1% Triton buffer) and 1 ml of 6% polyethylene glycol solution was added per tube and again incubated overnight at 4°C. Tubes were then spun down, inverted, dried overnight, and radioactivity was counted in a γ counter. A duplicate number of wells and triplicate numbers of tubes per well were used. Nonspecific binding, maximum binding, standard curve, and GnRH were added to the assay. To assess the effects of α-synuclein expression on mitochondrial activity, the MTT colorimetric assay was used to determine the level of NADH production within the four cell clones. For vitamin E treatment, α-tocopherol acetate (stock 1:10 in 100% alcohol; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) was further diluted 1:5 in fetal bovine serum (Hyclone, Logan, UT) and then mixed 1:5 with regular cell culture medium. Briefly, after exposure to treatments, the standard medium was replaced with the MTT dye solution (final concentration, 0.9 mg/ml; Sigma) and cells were incubated for 4 hours at 37°C. Then, 100 μl of solubilization solution (50% dimethylformamide/20% sodium dodecyl sulfate) was added overnight and the blue formazan was detected in a plate reader at 560 nm. To assess cell viability, the CytoTox 96 assay (Promega, Madison, WI) was used. A minimum of 12 replicates per clone was used per treatment and each experiment included a plate of control cells. Briefly, after 3 hours of incubation, media containing various treatments was replaced with 100 μl of normal media and 20 μl of CytoTox reagent was added per well. Cells were incubated for an additional 2 to 3 hours and counted on a 96-well plate reader at 492 nm. Additional analysis of cell viability was performed using the Trypan blue staining method. To determine whether free radical production was associated with α-synuclein expression, DCF loading analysis was performed. Briefly, cells were cultured on poly-l-lysine (Sigma)-coated glass coverslips in six-well dishes to 80% confluency. The cell permeable dye, 2′7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA, 75 μmol/L) (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) was added to the media and cells were incubated at 37°C, 5% CO2 for 15 minutes. Loaded cells were then imaged with the LSCM. Because it has been proposed that glutathione is the primary cellular anti-oxidant response to free radical production, we determined if levels of glutathione were affected in the four clones expressing different levels of α-synuclein. Briefly, as previously described,37Sagara Y Induction of reactive oxygen species in neurons by haloperidol.J Neurochem. 1998; 71: 1002-1012Crossref PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar cells were collected with 1× pancreatin and lysed with cold 10% sulfosalicylic acid. Lysates were incubated on ice for 15 minutes and supernatants were collected by centrifugation. After neutralization with triethanolamine (diluted 1:4), the concentration of total glutathione was determined. In addition, a standard curve of glutathione (0 to 2 nmol/L range; Sigma) was constructed. The A412 was measured at intervals of 0 seconds, 30 seconds, 60 seconds, and 90 seconds, and the total protein cell pellet was dissolved in 50 μl of 0.5 mol/L NaOH. Total protein was measured using the Protein Assay Kit (Pierce, Rockford, IL) and compared to a standard bovine serum albumin curve. Final concentrations of glutathione were obtained via linear regression analysis and expressed as nmol/mg protein. GT1-7 cells were grown in Lux Permanox culture dishes (Nalgene Nunc International, Naperville, IL) until confluence. Cells were fixed in 1% glutaraldehyde, 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/L Na cacodylate buffer (pH 7.4), postfixed in 1% osmium tetroxide, and stained with saturated uranyl acetate in 50% ethanol. The cell layer was dehydrated through a graded series of ethanols to 90% ethanol; 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate was the intermediate solvent. All infiltrations of 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate and Scipoxy 812 resin (Energy Beam Sciences, Agawam, MA) were carried out on a shaker at slow speed. After two changes of 100% resin the plates were polymerized in a 65°C oven for 24 hours, the plastic was detached and selected areas were sawed from the plates and glued on dummy blocks. Thin sections (80 nm) were cut on a Reichert Ultracut E Ultramicrotome (Leica, Vienna, Austria), picked up on 200-mesh copper grids, and poststained in ethanolic uranyl acetate followed by bismuth subnitrite. The sections were viewed and photographed with a Zeiss EM10 electron microscope. To ascertain differences among the various cell lines and treatment groups, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post hoc Scheffé test was performed using the SuperANOVA program (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). RPA analysis showed that cells transfected with the sense construct (ST) expressed eightfold to ninefold in- creased levels of murine mRNA α-synuclein compared to VEC-transfected and nontransfected control cells. In contrast, cells transfected with antisense (AST) showed a 50% reduction in α-synuclein mRNA levels (Figure 1, A and B). To determine whether the increase in mRNA levels was accompanied by similar changes at the protein level, Western blot analysis was performed. Consistent with previous studies32Iwai A Masliah E Yoshimoto M de Silva R Ge N Kittel A Saitoh T The precursor protein of non-Aβ component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid (NACP) is a presynaptic protein of the central nervous system.Neuron. 1994; 14: 467-475Abstract Full Text PDF Scopus (1111) Google Scholarα-synuclein immunoreactivity in GT1-7 cells was identified as an 18-kd band both in cytosolic (Figure 1C) and particulate fractions (not shown). Semiquantitative Western blot analysis by PhosphorImager of α-synuclein signals showed that ST cells expressed twofold over control, whereas AST cells expressed 50% of control levels (Figure 1D). LSCM of double-immunolabeled control and VEC-transfected GT1-7 cells showed that with the mouse-specific α-synuclein antibody there was a moderate granular cytoplasmic immunoreactivity (Figure 2A). In contrast, ST cells showed intense immunoreactivity associated with granular structures (Figure 2; B, C, and E) and dense cytoplasmic aggregates (Figure 2, F–G). Control experiments where the primary antibodies were inactivated show no immunoreactivity (Figure 2D). AST cells showed microtubule-associated protein 2 immunoreactivity, but mild or no α-synuclein immunostaining (Figure 2H). Analysis of the ST cells by transmitted electron microscopy showed that, compared to nontransfected cells (Figure 3, A and B), some of the mitochondria were enlarged (Figure 3, C and D) and displayed abnormal vacuolized cristae (Figure 3, E and F). In addition, some of the ST cells presented aggregates of electrodense material localized mainly in the perinuclear region (Figure 4, C and D). These inclusion-like structures had a diameter of ∼5 to 7 μm and were usually surrounded by laminated bodies. These alterations were not observed in VEC or control cells (Figure 4, A and B). Furthermore, some ST cells displayed numerous secondary lysosomes and laminated bodies in their cytoplasm and a relative lack of neuritic processes (Figure 4, E and F).Figure 3Ultrastructural analysis of mitochondrial alterations in transfected GT1-7 cells. Low power (original magnification, ×5,000; scale bar, 5 μm) (A) and high magnification (original magnification, ×20,000; scale bar, 1 μm) (B) views of vector-transfected cells showing mitochondria of normal characteristics (arrowheads). Low power (original magnification, ×5,000) (C) and high magnification (original magnification, ×20,000) (D) views of ST cells demonstrating abnormally enlarged mitochondria (arrowheads). ST cells also had mitochondria displaying vacuolization of the cristae (original magnification, ×10,000) (E) and distorted morphology (original magnification, ×15,000) (F).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)Figure 4Ultrastructural analysis of other morphological alterations in transfected GT1-7 cells. Low power (original magnification, ×5,000; scale bar, 5 μm) (A) and high magnification (original magnification, ×20,000; scale bar, 1 μm) (B) views of VEC-transfected cells demonstrating normal organelles. Low power (original magnification, ×5,000) (C) and high magnification (original magnification, ×20,000) (D) views of ST cells demonstrating electrodense intracytoplasmic inclusions (arrowheads). E and F: Furthermore ST cells displayed large numbers of secondary lysosomes and laminated bodies in their cytoplasm and complete lack of neuritic processes (original magnification, ×15,000).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) To determine whether structural alterations observed in the mitochondria were associated with functional deficits in the ST cells, the MTT assay (a measure of mitochondrial activity) was performed. In ST cells, this study showed a 20% reduction compared to VEC and control cells (Figure 5). Because previous studies have shown that mitochondrial dysfunction might lead to oxidative stress via disruption of the respiratory chain,27Mizuno Y Yoshino H Shin-ichiro I Hattori N Kobayashi T Shimoda-Matsubayashi S Matsumine H Kondo T Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.Ann Neurol. 1998; 44: S99-S109Crossref PubMed Scopus (150) Google Scholar, 33Schapira AHV Mitochondrial involvement in Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, hereditary spastic paraplegia and Friedreich's ataxia.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1999; 1410: 159-170Crossref PubMed Scopus (285) Google Scholar, 38Garcia-Ruiz C Colell A Mari M Morales A Fernandez-Checa JC Direct effect of ceramide on the mitochondrial electron transport chain leads to generation of reactive oxygen species.J Biol Chem. 1997; 272: 11369-11377Crossref PubMed Scopus (710) Google Scholar, 39Tatton WG Olanow CW Apoptosis in neurodegeneration diseases: the role of mitochondria.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1999; 1410: 195-213Crossref PubMed Scopus (246) Google Scholar it is possible that mitochondrial deficiencies might be normalized by treatment with anti-oxidants such as vitamin E. Consistent with this, vitamin E-treated ST cells showed levels similar to VEC and control cells (Figure 5). Because it is possible that reduction in mitochondrial activity might be secondary to cell death rather than primarily associated with α-synuclein overexpression, the lactate dehydrogenase assay was performed. No significant differences in cell viability were observed among the clones (data not shown). Because vitamin E pretreatment ameliorated the mitochondrial defic