Asthma is a global health problem affecting around 300 million individuals of all ages, ethnic groups and countries. It is estimated that around 250,000 people die prematurely each year as a result of asthma. Concepts of asthma severity and control are important in evaluating patients and their response to treatment, as well as for public health, registries, and research (clinical trials, epidemiologic, genetic, and mechanistic studies), but the terminology applied is not standardized, and terms are often used interchangeably. A common international approach is favored to define severe asthma, uncontrolled asthma, and when the 2 coincide, although adaptation may be required in accordance with local conditions. A World Health Organization meeting was convened April 5-6, 2009, to propose a uniform definition of severe asthma. An article was written by a group of experts and reviewed by the Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases review group. Severe asthma is defined by the level of current clinical control and risks as “Uncontrolled asthma which can result in risk of frequent severe exacerbations (or death) and/or adverse reactions to medications and/or chronic morbidity (including impaired lung function or reduced lung growth in children).” Severe asthma includes 3 groups, each carrying different public health messages and challenges: (1) untreated severe asthma, (2) difficult-to-treat severe asthma, and (3) treatment-resistant severe asthma. The last group includes asthma for which control is not achieved despite the highest level of recommended treatment and asthma for which control can be maintained only with the highest level of recommended treatment. Asthma is a global health problem affecting around 300 million individuals of all ages, ethnic groups and countries. It is estimated that around 250,000 people die prematurely each year as a result of asthma. Concepts of asthma severity and control are important in evaluating patients and their response to treatment, as well as for public health, registries, and research (clinical trials, epidemiologic, genetic, and mechanistic studies), but the terminology applied is not standardized, and terms are often used interchangeably. A common international approach is favored to define severe asthma, uncontrolled asthma, and when the 2 coincide, although adaptation may be required in accordance with local conditions. A World Health Organization meeting was convened April 5-6, 2009, to propose a uniform definition of severe asthma. An article was written by a group of experts and reviewed by the Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases review group. Severe asthma is defined by the level of current clinical control and risks as “Uncontrolled asthma which can result in risk of frequent severe exacerbations (or death) and/or adverse reactions to medications and/or chronic morbidity (including impaired lung function or reduced lung growth in children).” Severe asthma includes 3 groups, each carrying different public health messages and challenges: (1) untreated severe asthma, (2) difficult-to-treat severe asthma, and (3) treatment-resistant severe asthma. The last group includes asthma for which control is not achieved despite the highest level of recommended treatment and asthma for which control can be maintained only with the highest level of recommended treatment. Discuss this article on the JACI Journal Club blog: www.jaci-online.blogspot.com.Asthma is a global health problem affecting around 300 million individuals of all ages, ethnic groups, and countries.1Bousquet J. Khaltaev N. Global surveillance, prevention and control of chronic respiratory diseases: a comprehensive approach. Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva2007Google Scholar It is estimated that around 250,000 people die prematurely each year as a result of asthma.1Bousquet J. Khaltaev N. Global surveillance, prevention and control of chronic respiratory diseases: a comprehensive approach. Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva2007Google Scholar However, due to geographical diversity, there is a considerable heterogeneity of asthma in terms of gene-environment interactions, pathophysiological mechanisms, environmental exposures, comorbidities, age, underlying disease severity, health care access, care received, psychological factors, responsiveness of disease to therapy, and burden of disease including asthma exacerbations and death as well as long-term chronic morbidity.2Wenzel S.E. Asthma: defining of the persistent adult phenotypes.Lancet. 2006; 368: 804-813Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (801) Google ScholarConcepts of asthma severity and control are important in evaluating patients and their response to treatment as well as for public health, registries, and research (clinical trials, epidemiologic, genetic, and mechanistic studies), but the terminology applied is not standardized, and terms are often used interchangeably. A common international approach is favored to define severe asthma, uncontrolled asthma, and when the 2 coincide,3Bush A. Hedlin G. Carlsen K.H. de Benedictis F. Lodrup-Carlsen K. Wilson N. Severe childhood asthma: a common international approach?.Lancet. 2008; 372: 1019-1021Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar although adaptation may be required in accordance with local conditions.In 2008, an American Thoracic Society (ATS)/European Respiratory Society (ERS) Task Force reported some new perspectives on asthma control and severity to achieve uniform reporting of clinical trials.4Taylor D.R. Bateman E.D. Boulet L.P. Boushey H.A. Busse W.W. Casale T.B. et al.A new perspective on concepts of asthma severity and control.Eur Respir J. 2008; 32: 545-554Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar These concepts were appropriate for patients who have access to optimal drug treatments and to evaluate the response of patients to these interventions. Asthma in preschool children was not included, nor were aspects of severity related to public health issues and management in high-income countries or low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs).5Ait-Khaled N. Enarson D.A. Bissell K. Billo N.E. Access to inhaled corticosteroids is key to improving quality of care for asthma in developing countries.Allergy. 2007; 62: 230-236Crossref PubMed Scopus (50) Google Scholar, 6Mallol J. Castro-Rodriguez J.A. Cortez E. Aguirre V. Aguilar P. Barrueto L. Heightened bronchial hyperresponsiveness in the absence of heightened atopy in children with current wheezing and low income status.Thorax. 2008; 63: 167-171Crossref PubMed Scopus (23) Google ScholarThe first asthma guidelines were constructed on the idea that the practitioner first assessed and then graded asthma severity.7Bousquet J. Clark T.J. Hurd S. Khaltaev N. Lenfant C. O'byrne P. et al.GINA guidelines on asthma and beyond.Allergy. 2007; 62: 102-112PubMed Google Scholar The major reasons to characterize asthma severity were to guide management and to identify people with asthma at risk of severe exacerbation. Unfortunately, the case definitions of asthma severity and control were not always clear, and over the last 2 decades, they varied between and within asthma management guidelines. Initially, asthma guidelines proposed a stepwise management according to disease severity7Bousquet J. Clark T.J. Hurd S. Khaltaev N. Lenfant C. O'byrne P. et al.GINA guidelines on asthma and beyond.Allergy. 2007; 62: 102-112PubMed Google Scholar that was based on symptoms, the need for rescue medications, and lung function tests (eg, peak expiratory flow [PEF] rate and FEV1). However, as it became increasingly recognized that categorizing asthma involved assessing both the severity of the underlying disease and its responsiveness to treatment,8Proceedings of the ATS workshop on refractory asthma: current understanding, recommendations, and unanswered questions. American Thoracic Society.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000; 162: 2341-2351Crossref PubMed Scopus (895) Google Scholar, 9The ENFUMOSA cross-sectional European multicentre study of the clinical phenotype of chronic severe asthma. European Network for Understanding Mechanisms of Severe Asthma.Eur Respir J. 2003; 22: 470-477Crossref PubMed Scopus (679) Google Scholar, 10Moore W.C. Bleecker E.R. Curran-Everett D. Erzurum S.C. Ameredes B.T. Bacharier L. et al.Characterization of the severe asthma phenotype by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Severe Asthma Research Program.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007; 119: 405-413Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (757) Google Scholar later iterations of the guidelines viewed asthma severity according to the current treatment the patient was receiving.11Bateman E.D. Hurd S.S. Barnes P.J. Bousquet J. Drazen J.M. FitzGerald M. et al.Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary.Eur Respir J. 2008; 31: 143-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (2318) Google Scholar, 12British Thoracic Society Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. British guideline on the management of asthma.Thorax. 2008; 63: iv1-121Crossref PubMed Scopus (454) Google ScholarThe classification of asthma by severity has raised concerns.13Cockcroft D.W. Swystun V.A. Asthma control versus asthma severity.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1996; 98: 1016-1018Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (247) Google Scholar, 14Sawyer G. Miles J. Lewis S. Fitzharris P. Pearce N. Beasley R. Classification of asthma severity: should the international guidelines be changed?.Clin Exp Allergy. 1998; 28: 1565-1570Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar, 15Chanez P. Wenzel S.E. Anderson G.P. Anto J.M. Bel E.H. Boulet L.P. et al.Severe asthma in adults: what are the important questions?.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007; 119: 1337-1348Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar, 16Wenzel S.E. Busse W.W. Severe asthma: lessons from the Severe Asthma Research Program.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007; 119 (quiz 22-23): 14-21Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (206) Google Scholar Severity is not a stable feature of asthma but may change with time, whereas the classification by disease severity suggests a static feature. Moreover, the term severity is used variably to indicate current symptoms, the resistance of symptoms to standard treatment, and future risk of death or exacerbations. Responsiveness to treatment is heterogeneous, even among patients with asthma of similar severity. Moreover, the use of severity as a single outcome measure has limited value in predicting which treatment will be required and the response to that treatment.17Stoloff S.W. Boushey H.A. Severity, control, and responsiveness in asthma.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006; 117: 544-548Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar, 18Bateman E.D. Severity and control of severe asthma.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006; 117: 519-521Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar These considerations prompted some guideline committees to propose that asthma severity is no longer used as the basis for treatment decisions, and that the focus is more so to assess current clinical asthma control first19Boulet L.P. Phillips R. O'Byrne P. Becker A. Evaluation of asthma control by physicians and patients: comparison with current guidelines.Can Respir J. 2002; 9: 417-423PubMed Google Scholar and then to adjust treatment accordingly in a stepwise manner.11Bateman E.D. Hurd S.S. Barnes P.J. Bousquet J. Drazen J.M. FitzGerald M. et al.Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary.Eur Respir J. 2008; 31: 143-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (2318) Google Scholar The National Asthma Education Prevention Program (NAEPP)–Expert Panel Report 3 (EPR3) proposed that the concepts are linked: severity is the intrinsic intensity of the disease, control is the degree to which the manifestations of asthma are minimized by treatment, and responsiveness is the ease with which asthma control is achieved. EPR3 further proposed that severity and control incorporate 2 distinct domains: impairment (frequency and intensity of symptoms and functional limitations currently experienced) and risk (likelihood of exacerbations, progressive decline in lung function or, for children, reduced lung growth, or risk of medication side effects).20NAEPP (National Asthma Education and Prevention Program) Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. 2007. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm. Accessed September 8, 2010.Google Scholar, 21Busse W.W. Lemanske Jr., R.F. Expert Panel Report 3: moving forward to improve asthma care.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007; 120: 1012-1014Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (46) Google ScholarA guideline for the management of asthma in LMICs has been published by The Union (International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease) based on the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) 1995 and adapted to the availability and affordability of medications22Ait-Khaled N. Enarson D. Management of asthma guidelines: guide for low income countries. IUATLD. pmi-Verl. Gruppe, Frankfurt am Main, Moskau, Senwald, Wien1996Google Scholar and the World Health Organization (WHO) Model List of Essential Medicines. An update was published in 2008.23Aït-Khaled N. Enarson D.A. Chen-Yuan C. Marks G. Bissell K. Management of asthma: a guide to the essentials of good clinical practice.3rd ed. International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Paris2008Google Scholar In these guidelines, inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) as potent anti-inflammatory drugs are proposed as the mainstay treatment for the management of asthma based on disease severity as assessed by symptoms and lung function measurement.All asthma guidelines propose that for an individual patient, the practitioner should perform a periodic assessment of asthma control and adjust treatment accordingly.11Bateman E.D. Hurd S.S. Barnes P.J. Bousquet J. Drazen J.M. FitzGerald M. et al.Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary.Eur Respir J. 2008; 31: 143-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (2318) Google Scholar, 12British Thoracic Society Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. 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Blessing-Moore J. et al.Attaining optimal asthma control: a practice parameter.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 116: S3-11Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar This is particularly important in children, in whom remission of asthma is common.Three important issues regarding the current global situation for asthma management have led to the proposal for the uniform definition of severe asthma. First, health care provision in different countries is disparate, especially in LMICs, which have limited or no access to chronic medical care or asthma therapies. Second, with appropriate management,11Bateman E.D. Hurd S.S. Barnes P.J. Bousquet J. Drazen J.M. FitzGerald M. et al.Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary.Eur Respir J. 2008; 31: 143-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (2318) Google Scholar, 12British Thoracic Society Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. 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Blessing-Moore J. et al.Attaining optimal asthma control: a practice parameter.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 116: S3-11Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar the control of asthma can be achieved adequately in most patients. Third, direct and indirect costs for asthma are substantial, in particular in low-resource settings.26Cruz A.A. Bousquet P.J. The unbearable cost of severe asthma in underprivileged populations.Allergy. 2009; 64: 319-321Crossref PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar, 27Franco R. Nascimento H.F. Cruz A.A. Santos A.C. Souza-Machado C. Ponte E.V. et al.The economic impact of severe asthma to low-income families.Allergy. 2009; 64: 478-483Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar Thus, a standardized definition of severe asthma will promote efficient identification and treatment of patients. These patients will benefit from treatment, and, in turn, this will ease the burden of the disease on patients, their families, and society.The proposal for a uniform definition of asthma severity, control, and exacerbations has taken into account the GINA 2006 revision,11Bateman E.D. Hurd S.S. Barnes P.J. Bousquet J. Drazen J.M. FitzGerald M. et al.Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary.Eur Respir J. 2008; 31: 143-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (2318) Google Scholar the 2007 NAEPP-EPR3,20NAEPP (National Asthma Education and Prevention Program) Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. 2007. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/index.htm. Accessed September 8, 2010.Google Scholar The Union 2008 guide,23Aït-Khaled N. Enarson D.A. Chen-Yuan C. Marks G. Bissell K. Management of asthma: a guide to the essentials of good clinical practice.3rd ed. International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, Paris2008Google Scholar and the 2008 ATS/ERS Task Force report4Taylor D.R. Bateman E.D. Boulet L.P. Boushey H.A. Busse W.W. Casale T.B. et al.A new perspective on concepts of asthma severity and control.Eur Respir J. 2008; 32: 545-554Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar and has considered the previous definitions of the 2 ERS28Chung K.F. Godard P. Adelroth E. Ayres J. Barnes N. Barnes P. et al.Difficult/therapy-resistant asthma: the need for an integrated approach to define clinical phenotypes, evaluate risk factors, understand pathophysiology and find novel therapies. ERS Task Force on Difficult/Therapy-Resistant Asthma. European Respiratory Society.Eur Respir J. 1999; 13: 1198-1208PubMed Google Scholar and ATS Task Forces,8Proceedings of the ATS workshop on refractory asthma: current understanding, recommendations, and unanswered questions. American Thoracic Society.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000; 162: 2341-2351Crossref PubMed Scopus (895) Google Scholar in which the terms “severe,” “therapy-resistant asthma,” “refractory asthma,” or “difficult-to-control asthma” were applied to patients with symptomatic asthma on current treatment.Goal of the WHO consultationThe goal of the WHO Consultation on Severe Asthma (Geneva, April 6-7, 2009) was to propose a WHO definition of asthma severity and control as well as criteria for describing exacerbations and their severity, which should be applicable in most circumstances in low-, middle-, and high-income countries.Management of asthmaDiversity of asthma management across the worldThe management of asthma differs widely and is dependent on patients' centered problems (socioeconomic and cultural barriers) as well as national, economic, and health provider settings. In high-income countries, most antiasthma treatments are available and, for the majority of patients, are affordable. Therefore, asthma management in these countries is possible using guidelines formulated without respect to medication availability, cost, and affordability. However, in many LMICs, essential medicines may be available but are rarely affordable.29Mendis S. Fukino K. Cameron A. Laing R. Filipe Jr., A. Khatib O. et al.The availability and affordability of selected essential medicines for chronic diseases in six low- and middle-income countries.Bull World Health Organ. 2007; 85: 279-288Crossref PubMed Scopus (330) Google Scholar, 30Cameron A. Ewen M. Ross-Degnan D. Ball D. Laing R. Medicine prices, availability, and affordability in 36 developing and middle-income countries: a secondary analysis.Lancet. 2009; 373: 240-249Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (552) Google Scholar In these settings, patients and health care providers are used to short-term continuous treatments for most communicable diseases and do not easily understand the need for long-term treatments. In the primary health care (PHC) settings of LMICs, only syndromic approaches for major noncommunicable diseases are applicable.31Camacho M. Nogales M. Manjon R. Del Granado M. Pio A. Ottmani S. Results of PAL feasibility test in primary health care facilities in four regions of Bolivia.Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2007; 11: 1246-1252PubMed Google Scholar, 32English R.G. Bateman E.D. Zwarenstein M.F. Fairall L.R. Bheekie A. Bachmann M.O. et al.Development of a South African integrated syndromic respiratory disease guideline for primary care.Prim Care Respir J. 2008; 17: 156-163Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar In many LMICs, the availability of objective pulmonary function testing such as spirometry and PEF measurement is also problematic, although the availability and use of PEF has recently been recommended to all PHC facilities (WHO Package of Essential Interventions for Noncommunicable Diseases [WHO-PEN]).33World Health Organization. 2008-2013 Action plan for the global strategy for the preventionand control of non communicable diseases. Prevent and control cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes. 2008. Available at: http://www.who.int/nmh/Actionplan-PC-NCD-2008.pdf. Accessed April 2, 2009.Google Scholar Hence, both adequate treatments and organized health care systems are needed, as well as an appropriate communication to health care providers and patients.WHO model list of essential medicinesThe current Model List of Essential Medicines was prepared by a WHO Expert Committee in March 2007 and represents its 15th edition34World Health Organization. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. 15th list, March 2007. Available at: http://www.who.int/medicines. Accessed April 2, 2009.Google Scholar (Table I).Table IWHO model list of essential medicines for asthma and COPD34World Health Organization. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. 15th list, March 2007. Available at: http://www.who.int/medicines. Accessed April 2, 2009.Google Scholar□ BeclometasoneInhalation (aerosol): 50-250 μg (dipropionate) per doseEpinephrine (adrenaline)Injection: 1 mg (as hydrochloride or hydrogen tartrate) in 1 mL ampouleIpratropium bromideInhalation (aerosol): 20 μg/metered dose□ SalbutamolInhalation (aerosol): 100 μg (as sulfate) per dose)Injection: 50 μg (as sulfate)/5 mL ampouleOral liquid: 2 mg/5 mLRespirator solution for use in nebulizers: 5 mg (as sulfate)/mLThe square box symbol (□) is primarily intended to indicate similar clinical performance within a pharmacologic class. The listed medicine should be the example of the class for which there is the best evidence for effectiveness and safety. In some cases, this may be the first medicine that is licensed for marketing; in other instances, subsequently licensed compounds may be safer or more effective. Where there is no difference in terms of efficacy and safety data, the listed medicine should be the one that is generally available at the lowest price, based on international drug price information sources. Open table in a new tab In principle, essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population, and they are selected in regard to disease prevalence, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative cost-effectiveness. Although a central repository of treatments for severe asthma worldwide is clearly desirable, selection, updating, and assessment of the efficacy of current and novel medicines are difficult tasks, and cost-effectiveness assessments for different areas of the world are most likely impossible. Furthermore, the requirements and methodology for the assessment and grading of evidence are more demanding and require up-to-date methodology, which necessitates significant resources.Assuring quality of inhalation productsTo minimize adverse reactions, maximize efficacy, and increase the speed and duration of effect at the site of action, inhalation from a pressurized metered-dose inhaler (MDI), a dry powder inhaler (DPI), or a spacer is the recommended route of administration for the majority of medicines for asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; corticosteroids, ß2-agonists, and anticholinergics). However, these recommendations imply that only high-quality drugs meeting strict criteria set by drug regulatory authorities are made available. Inhalation dosage forms, such as MDIs and DPIs, are complex, consisting of the active drug substance in an appropriate formulation and a mechanical device component that delivers the formulation to the patient. The formulation of MDIs is contained in canisters under pressure and contains propellants, such as chlorofluorocarbons or hydrofluoroalkans, for aerosolization. In accordance with the Montreal Protocol, the use of chlorofluorocarbons in inhalers is being phased out and replaced by hydrofluoroalkans or by devices that do not use propellants.35Hendeles L. Colice G.L. Meyer R.J. Withdrawal of albuterol inhalers containing chlorofluorocarbon propellants.N Engl J Med. 2007; 356: 1344-1351Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar, 36Woodcock A. The Montreal Protocol: getting over the finishing line?.Lancet. 2009; 373: 705-706Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2) Google Scholar Several hydrofluoroalkan-MDIs are efficient, but hydrofluoroalkans have characteristics that make them different and more difficult to use as propellants than chlorofluorocarbons. The technology to manufacture hydrofluoroalkan-propelled inhalation aerosols is evolving. Many of the inhalation aerosols are suspensions, making it difficult to manufacture them and maintain their quality through the life of the product. The formulation of DPIs generally contains lactose as a bulking agent. Issues related to the use of lactose include varying stability of the product in various temperatures and relative humidity conditions experienced in the world.Manufacturing of inhalation products is complicated because of the nature of the dosage form. There are various guidance documents issued by regulatory agencies that advise the industry on producing quality inhalation products.37US guidance: metered dose inhaler (MDI) and dry powder inhaler (DPI) drug products—chemistry, manufacturing, and control documentaion. Draft guidance. 1998. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidance/ucm070573.pdf. 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Accessed December 9, 2009.Google Scholar The critical elements of inhalation dosage forms are assurance of consistent particle size, distribution of the active moiety, dose content uniformity throughout the life of the product, spray pattern and plume geometry, controls for impurities, degradation products, extractability, and leachability. For DPIs, additional critical elements include control for water and moisture content. Ruggedness and reliability of the product under conditions of patients' use are important for all inhalation dosage forms.The catastrophic failure of an MDI or DPI resulting in little, no, or excess delivery of the active drug substance will place patients with asthma at substantial risk. Failure of an MDI or DPI containing a controller drug such as ICS may go unnoticed by patients because their asthma may not worsen acutely. Fur