Recent studies suggested that interruption of the interaction of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), with the signal-transducing receptor receptor for AGE (RAGE), by administration of the soluble, extracellular ligand-binding domain of RAGE, reversed vascular hyperpermeability and suppressed accelerated atherosclerosis in diabetic rodents. Since the precise molecular target of soluble RAGE in those settings was not elucidated, we tested the hypothesis that predominant specific AGEs within the tissues in disorders such as diabetes and renal failure,N ε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) adducts, are ligands of RAGE. We demonstrate here that physiologically relevant CML modifications of proteins engage cellular RAGE, thereby activating key cell signaling pathways such as NF-κB and modulating gene expression. Thus, CML-RAGE interaction triggers processes intimately linked to accelerated vascular and inflammatory complications that typify disorders in which inflammation is an established component. Recent studies suggested that interruption of the interaction of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), with the signal-transducing receptor receptor for AGE (RAGE), by administration of the soluble, extracellular ligand-binding domain of RAGE, reversed vascular hyperpermeability and suppressed accelerated atherosclerosis in diabetic rodents. Since the precise molecular target of soluble RAGE in those settings was not elucidated, we tested the hypothesis that predominant specific AGEs within the tissues in disorders such as diabetes and renal failure,N ε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) adducts, are ligands of RAGE. We demonstrate here that physiologically relevant CML modifications of proteins engage cellular RAGE, thereby activating key cell signaling pathways such as NF-κB and modulating gene expression. Thus, CML-RAGE interaction triggers processes intimately linked to accelerated vascular and inflammatory complications that typify disorders in which inflammation is an established component. advanced glycation end products AGE-β2-microglobulin bovine serum albumin N ε- (carboxymethyl)lysine dominant negative dialysis-related amyloidosis ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay electrophoretic mobility shift assay glutathione S-transferase human umbilical vein endothelial cells keyhole limpet hemocyanin mononuclear phagocyte ovalbumin phosphate-buffered saline soluble RAGE receptor for AGE Tris-buffered saline vascular smooth muscle cells polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Receptor for AGE1(RAGE), a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, was first described as a cell surface interaction site for advanced glycation end products (AGEs), products of glycation and oxidation of proteins and lipids (1Schmidt A.M. Vianna M. Gerlach M. Brett J. Ryan J. Kao J. Esposito C. Hegarty H. Hurley W. Clauss M. Wang F. Pan Y.C. Tsang T.C. Stern D. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 14987-14997Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 2Neeper M. Schmidt A.M. Brett J. Yan S.D. Wang F. Pan Y.C. Elliston K. Stern D. Shaw A. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 14998-15004Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). AGEs are a heterogeneous class of compounds, whose accumulation in disorders such as diabetes, renal failure, Alzheimer's disease, and, indeed, natural aging, albeit to a lesser degree, has suggested their potential contribution to the pathogenesis of complications that typify these conditions (3Brownlee M. Annu. Rev. Med. 1995; 46: 223-234Crossref PubMed Scopus (1174) Google Scholar, 4Brownlee M. Cerami A. Vlassara H. N. Engl. J. Med. 1988; 318: 1315-1320Crossref PubMed Scopus (2405) Google Scholar, 5Palinski W. Koschinsky T. Butler S. Miller E. Vlassara H. Cerami A. Witztum J. Atheroscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 1995; 15: 571-582Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 6Miyata T. Oda O. Inagi R. Iida Y. Araki N. Yamada N. Horiuchi S. Taniguchi N. Maeda K. Kinoshita T. J. Clin. Invest. 1993; 92: 1243-1252Crossref PubMed Scopus (413) Google Scholar, 7Takedo A. Yasuda T. Miyata T. Mizuno K. Li M. Yoneyama S. Horie K. Maeda K. Sobue G. Neurosci. Lett. 1996; 221: 17-20Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar). Our previous studies demonstrated that both in vitro and in vivo derived heterogeneous AGEs ligate cell surface RAGE on endothelium (ECs), mononuclear phagocytes (MPs), vascular smooth muscle (VSMC), and neurons to activate cell signaling pathways such as ERK1/ERK2 kinases and NF-κB (8Yan S.D. Schmidt A.M. Anderson G. Zhang J. Brett J. Zou Y.S. Pinsky D. Stern D. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 9889-9897Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 9Lander H.L. Tauras J.M. Ogiste J.S. Hori O. Moss R.A. Schmidt A.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 17810-17814Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (691) Google Scholar), thereby redirecting cellular function in a manner linked to expression of inflammatory and prothrombotic genes important in the pathogenesis of chronic disorders as apparently diverse as diabetic macrovascular disease and amyloidosis (10Schmidt A.M. Yan S.D. Brett J. Mora R. Stern D. J. Clin. Invest. 1993; 91: 2155-2168Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar, 11Schmidt A.-M. Hasu M. Popov D. Zhang J.H. Yan S.-D. Brett J. Cao R. Kuwabara K. Costache G. Simionescu N. Simionescu M. Stern D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 8807-8811Crossref PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar, 12Wautier J.L. Wautier M.P. Schmidt A.M. Anderson G.M. Zoukourian C. Capron L. Chappey O. Yan S.D. Brett J. Guillausseau P.J. Stern D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 7742-7746Crossref PubMed Scopus (336) Google Scholar, 13Yan S.D. Chen X. Schmidt A.M. Brett J. Godman G. Scott C.W. Caputo C. Frappier T. Yen S.H. Stern D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1994; 91: 7787-7791Crossref PubMed Scopus (541) Google Scholar, 14Schmidt A.M. Hori O. Chen J. Li J.F. Crandall J. Zhang J. Cao R. Yan S.D. Brett J. Stern D. J. Clin. Invest. 1995; 96: 1395-1403Crossref PubMed Scopus (829) Google Scholar, 15Schmidt A.M. Weidman E. Lalla E. Yan S.D. Hori O. Cao R. Brett J. Lamster I. J. Periodontol. Res. 1996; 31: 508-515Crossref PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar, 16Miyata T. Hori O. Zhang J.H. Yan S.D. Ferran L. Iida Y. Schmidt A.M. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1088-1094Crossref PubMed Scopus (277) Google Scholar, 17Bierhaus A. Illmer T. Kasper M. Luther T. Quehenberger P. Tritschler H. Wahl P. Ziegler R. Muller M. Nawroth P.P. Circulation. 1997; 96: 2262-2271Crossref PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar, 18Owen Jr., W.F. Hou F.F. Stuart R.O. Kay J. Boyce J. Chertow G.M. Schmidt A.M. Kidney Int. 1998; 53: 1365-1373Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar, 19Wautier J.-L. Zoukourian C. Chappey O. Wautier M.P. Guillausseau P.J. Cao R. Hori O. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 97: 238-243Crossref PubMed Scopus (509) Google Scholar, 20Park L. Raman K.G. Lee K.J. Yan L. Ferran L.J. Chow W.S. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. Nat. Med. 1998; 4: 1025-1031Crossref PubMed Scopus (1041) Google Scholar). Our recent studies suggested that interruption of the interaction of AGEs with RAGE in vivo, by administration of soluble RAGE (sRAGE), the extracellular ligand-binding domain of RAGE, reversed vascular hyperpermeability and suppressed accelerated atherosclerotic lesion development and complexity in diabetic rodents (19Wautier J.-L. Zoukourian C. Chappey O. Wautier M.P. Guillausseau P.J. Cao R. Hori O. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 97: 238-243Crossref PubMed Scopus (509) Google Scholar, 20Park L. Raman K.G. Lee K.J. Yan L. Ferran L.J. Chow W.S. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. Nat. Med. 1998; 4: 1025-1031Crossref PubMed Scopus (1041) Google Scholar). In the latter studies, analysis of plasma demonstrated evidence of an sRAGE·AGE complex; immunoprecipitation of plasma obtained from diabetic sRAGE-treated mice with anti-RAGE IgG yielded species immunoreactive with both anti-RAGE IgG or affinity purified anti-AGE IgG, suggesting that sRAGE might bind up AGEs and limit their interaction with and activation of cell surface RAGE. The beneficial effects of sRAGE were independent of alterations in other risk factors, such as hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia, implicating a role for AGE-RAGE interaction in the development of vascular dysfunction in diabetes (20Park L. Raman K.G. Lee K.J. Yan L. Ferran L.J. Chow W.S. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. Nat. Med. 1998; 4: 1025-1031Crossref PubMed Scopus (1041) Google Scholar). These past studies, however, did not elucidate the precise AGE(s) that trigger signal transduction mechanisms upon engagement of RAGE. We thus sought to test specific AGE structures for their ability to bind RAGE on the surface of cells such as ECs, MPs, and VSMCs in order to determine their role in cellular activation. In this context, recent biochemical and immunohistochemical studies suggested that N ε- (carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) modifications of proteins are predominant AGEs that accumulate in vivo (21Dunn J.A. McCance D.R. Thorpe S.R. Lyons T.J. Baynes J.W. Biochemistry. 1993; 30: 1205-1210Crossref Scopus (293) Google Scholar, 22Reddy S. Bichler J. Wells-Knecht K.J. Thorpe S.R. Baynes J.W. Biochemistry. 1995; 34: 10872-10878Crossref PubMed Scopus (473) Google Scholar, 23Ikeda K. Higashi T. Sano H. Jinnouchi Y. Yoshida M. Araki T. Ueda S. Horiuchi S. Biochemistry. 1996; 35: 8075-8083Crossref PubMed Scopus (417) Google Scholar, 24Schleicher E.D. Wagner E. Nerlich A.G. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 457-468Crossref PubMed Scopus (680) Google Scholar). Elevated serum levels of CML were demonstrated in patients with diabetes (24Schleicher E.D. Wagner E. Nerlich A.G. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 457-468Crossref PubMed Scopus (680) Google Scholar, 25Berg T.J. Clausen J.T. Torjesen P.A. Dahl-Jorgensen K. Bangstad H.J. Hanssen K.F. Diabetes Care. 1998; 21: 1997-2002Crossref PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar) and renal failure (26Degenhardt T.P. Grass L. Reddy S. Thorpe S.R. Diamandis E.P. Baynes J.W. Kidney Int. 1997; 52: 1064-1067Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (105) Google Scholar). Importantly, enhanced accumulation of CML was shown in vascular tissue, atherosclerotic lesions, and glomerular tissue retrieved from diabetic rodents and human subjects (25Berg T.J. Clausen J.T. Torjesen P.A. Dahl-Jorgensen K. Bangstad H.J. Hanssen K.F. Diabetes Care. 1998; 21: 1997-2002Crossref PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar, 27Kume S. Takeya M. Mori T. Araki N. Suzuki H. Horiuchi S. Kodama T. Miyauchi T. Takahashi K. Am. J. Pathol. 1995; 147: 654-667PubMed Google Scholar, 28Meng J. Sakata N. Takebayashi S. Asano T. Futata T. Nagai R. Ikeda K. Horiuchi S. Myint T. Taniguchi N. Atherosclerosis. 1997; 136: 355-365Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (53) Google Scholar, 29Miyata T. Ishikawa S. Asahi K. Inagi R. Suzuki D. Horie K. Tatsumi K. Kurokawa K. FEBS Lett. 1999; 445: 202-206Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar, 30Horie K. Miyata T. Maeda K. Miyata S. Sugiyama S. Sakai H. van Ypersele de Strihou C. Monnier V.M. Witztum J.L. Kurokawa K. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 100: 2995-3004Crossref PubMed Scopus (389) Google Scholar). In these settings, CML adducts co-localized with oxidation epitopes, such as malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal. These observations are consistent with the concept that beyond processes mediating glycoxidation of proteins (31Ahmed M.U. Thorpe S.R. Baynes J.W. J. Biol. Chem. 1986; 261: 4889-4894Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), lipid oxidation itself triggers generation of CML (32Fu M.X. Requena J.R. Jenkins A.J. Lyons T.J. Baynes J.W. Thorpe S.R. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 9982-9986Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (736) Google Scholar), thereby establishing a likely link between enhanced glycation observed in diabetic hyperglycemia and disturbances of lipid metabolism, common to both types 1 and 2 diabetes (33Uusitupa M.I. Niskanen L.K. Siitonen O. Voutilainen E. Pyorala K. Circulation. 1990; 82: 27-36Crossref PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar). Furthermore, recent findings suggested that CML modifications may form directly as a consequence of activation of the myeloperoxidase-hydrogen peroxide-chloride system, thereby providing a mechanism for conversion of hydroxy amino acids into glycoaldehyde, a precursor in the steps leading to formation of CML (34Anderson M.M. Requena J.R. Crowley J.R. Thorpe S.R. Heinecke J.W. J. Clin. Invest. 1999; 104: 103-113Crossref PubMed Scopus (326) Google Scholar). These findings may have direct implications for inflammatory processes that characterize certain complications of diabetes and renal failure, for example, such as atherosclerosis, impaired wound healing, aggressive and inflammatory periodontal disease, and dialysis-related amyloidosis (DRA) (6Miyata T. Oda O. Inagi R. Iida Y. Araki N. Yamada N. Horiuchi S. Taniguchi N. Maeda K. Kinoshita T. J. Clin. Invest. 1993; 92: 1243-1252Crossref PubMed Scopus (413) Google Scholar,35Inoue N. Nishikata S. Furuya E. Takita H. Kawamura M. Nishikaze O. Int. J. Tissue React. 1985; 7: 27-33PubMed Google Scholar, 36Loe H. Diabetes Care. 1993; 16: 329-334Crossref PubMed Scopus (1019) Google Scholar). Consistent with these concepts, previous studies placed RAGE in the vascular and inflammatory milieu characteristic of disorders in which AGEs, such as CML, accumulate; indeed, expression of RAGE is enhanced in these settings, beyond that observed in normal adult tissues (37Brett J. Schmidt A.M. Zou Y.S. Yan S.D. Weidman E. Pinsky D.J. Neeper M. Przysiecki M. Shaw A. Migheli A. Stern D.M. Am. J. Pathol. 1993; 143: 1699-1712PubMed Google Scholar, 38Ritthaler U. Roth H. Bierhaus A. Ziegler R. Schmidt A.M. Waldherr R. Wahl P. Stern D. Nawroth P. Am. J. Pathol. 1995; 146: 688-694PubMed Google Scholar, 39Schmidt A.M. Yan S.D. Stern D. Nat. Med. 1995; 1: 1002-1004Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar, 40Soulis T. Thallas V. Youssef S. Gilbert R.E. McWilliam B.G. Murray-McIntosh R.P. Cooper M.E. Diabetologia. 1997; 40: 619-628Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 41Hofmann M.A. Drury S. Fu C. Qu W. Taguchi A. Lu Y. Avila C. Kambham N. Bierhaus O. Nawroth P. Neurath M.F. Slattery T. Beach D. McClary J. Nagashima M. Morser J. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. Cell. 1999; 97: 889-901Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1640) Google Scholar). Taken together, therefore, these considerations suggested that examination of CML adducts of proteins as potential specific AGE ligands for RAGE was a logical step. Here we report that CML-modified proteins engage cellular RAGE in vitro and in vivo to activate key cell signaling pathways such as the transcription factor NF-κB, with subsequent modulation of gene expression. Together, these findings link CML-RAGE interaction to the development of accelerated vascular and inflammatory complications that typify disorders in which inflammation is an established component. Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), bovine serum albumin (BSA), or ovalbumin (OVA) (Sigma) (176 mg in each case), and sodium cyanoborohydride (28.3 mg; 0.45 m) were dissolved in sodium phosphate buffer (0.2 m; pH 7.8); to this was added glyoxylic acid (14.3 mg; 0.155 m) in a total volume of 1 ml per reaction. The mixture was incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. Control proteins were prepared under the same conditions, except that glyoxylic acid was omitted (23Ikeda K. Higashi T. Sano H. Jinnouchi Y. Yoshida M. Araki T. Ueda S. Horiuchi S. Biochemistry. 1996; 35: 8075-8083Crossref PubMed Scopus (417) Google Scholar). These published methods were modified in order to prepare proteins with a range of CML modifications as follows: protein was incubated in buffer exactly as above, except that varying amounts of glyoxylic acid were added as follows: 10 mg (0.108m), 7 mg (0.076 m), 4 mg (0.043 m), 2 mg (0.0217 m), and 1 mg (0.0108 m); concomitantly varying amounts of sodium cyanoborohydride were added as follows: 19.8 mg (0.3152 m), 14.1 mg (0.225 m), 7.1 mg (0.1125 m), 3.5 mg (0.0556 m), and 2 mg (0.0318 m), respectively, as described previously. Preparations of CML-modified proteins were extensively dialyzedversus phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and characterized by percent modification as determined both by employment of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid to determine the difference in lysine residues of modified versus unmodified preparations (42Habeeb A.F. Anal. Biochem. 1966; 14: 328-336Crossref PubMed Scopus (1959) Google Scholar) and by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (43Woo K. Chang D. J. Chromatogr. 1993; 638: 97-107Crossref Scopus (21) Google Scholar). To test CML-modified adducts, 0.8 mmol of CML/mol of Lys, CML-OVA, 33 mmol of CML/mol of Lys, were diluted 1:40 with native OVA in PBS. All CML-modified native proteins, antibodies/F(ab′)2 fragments, and control proteins were devoid of endotoxin prior to experiments by chromatography onto Detox-igel columns (Pierce). The level of endotoxin in all protein preparations (concentration range, 2–6 mg/ml) was less than 3 pg/ml (Sigma). Anti-human RAGE IgG and affinity purified anti-CML IgG were prepared and characterized as described previously (44Hori O. Brett J. Slattery T. Cao R. Zhang J. Chen J.X. Nagashima M. Lundh E.R. Vijay S. Nitecki D. Morser J. Stern D. Schmidt A.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 25752-25761Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1044) Google Scholar and 24, respectively). In the latter case, CML-BSA and CML-KLH prepared as above were employed to immunize New Zealand White rabbits (24Schleicher E.D. Wagner E. Nerlich A.G. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 457-468Crossref PubMed Scopus (680) Google Scholar). After 6–12 weeks, serum was obtained and IgG prepared (Pierce). Affinity purification of the IgG fractions was performed as follows: IgG fractions were chromatographed onto Affi-Gel 15 resin (Bio-Rad), which had previously adsorbed KLH. Material that did not adhere to the resin was collected and subsequently chromatographed onto Affi-Gel 15 (Bio-Rad) which had previously been adsorbed CML-BSA. After extensive washing in Tris-buffered saline (Tris, 0.02 m; pH 7.4, and NaCl, 0.1m) containing Tween 20 (0.05%), fractions were eluted in buffer containing glycine, 0.02 m; pH 2.5.A 280 nm of each fraction was determined; positive fractions were immediately neutralized and dialyzedversus Tris-buffered saline. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were performed to characterize the affinity purified antibodies. To wells of plastic dishes (Maxisorp, Nunc, Naperville, IL) was added 5 μg of the following proteins in bicarbonate/carbonate buffer, pH 9.6: BSA, KLH, CML-BSA, or CML-KLH. After incubation for 16 h at 4 °C, wells were washed in PBS and then unoccupied sites on the wells blocked in the presence of PBS containing BSA (1%) and goat serum (5%; Sigma) for 1 h at 25 °C. Wells were washed in PBS containing Tween 20 (0.05%) and primary antibody, and affinity purified anti-CML IgG was added at a concentration of 3 μg/ml in blocking buffer as above for 3 h at 25 °C. Wells were washed five times in PBS, and then sites of primary antibody binding were identified upon incubation with blocking buffer containing peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG according to the manufacturer's instructions (Sigma) for 1 h at 25 °C. Wells were washed five times and developed in citrate buffer containingo-phenylenediamine/H2O2 as instructed (Sigma). In these assays, only CML modifications of proteins were highly reactive; no reactivity was identified versusnative, unmodified proteins. Furthermore, upon incubation of affinity purified anti-CML IgG with excess CML-BSA, immunoreactivity of CML-modified adducts was abolished. Plasma samples were obtained from human donors with diabetes, renal failure, or age-matched healthy controls in accordance with the procedures of the Institutional Review Board of Columbia University. Samples (2 ml) were dialyzed for 16 h at 4 °C in phosphate buffer, 0.02m; pH 7.1 (total volume, 4,000 ml). After dialysis, samples were subjected to filtration, 0.8 μm, and then chromatographed onto columns containing Affi-Gel blue resin (Bio-Rad) previously equilibrated in phosphate buffer, 0.02 m; pH 7.1; 5 ml of resin were employed per ml of plasma. The resin was washed in 2.5 column volumes of phosphate buffer as above, and human serum albumin was eluted by application of phosphate buffer containing NaCl (1.4m). The A 280 nm for each fraction was determined (Ultraspec Plus, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech), and positive fractions were determined by SDS-PAGE followed by staining with silver (Bio-Rad). Immunoblotting was performed employing the above material; to each lane of SDS-PAGE gels (8%), 30 μg of protein was added. Simultaneously, marker proteins were added as a means to assess ≈kDa (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). After electrophoretic separation, contents of the gels were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes (Bio-Rad). Unoccupied sites on the membranes were blocked in the presence of nonfat dry milk in TBS (13.5%) for 4 h at room temperature. Immunoblotting was performed using affinity purified anti-CML IgG as above (14.2 μg/ml) in milk buffer (5%) for 1.5 h at 37 °C. Membranes were washed extensively in TBS containing Tween 20 (0.1%) and membranes incubated with goat anti-rabbit IgG labeled with horseradish peroxidase (Sigma) for 1 h at 37 °C. Membranes were washed extensively in the above buffer, and visualization of antibody binding was performed employing the ECL detection system (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Quantitative evaluation of band intensity was performed using Molecular Dynamics/ImageQuant (Foster City, CA). Human IgG (Sigma), 5 mg/ml in PBS, was subjected to nonenzymatic glycation by incubation in PBS containing d-ribose, 0.025 m (Sigma). The solution was sterile-filtered (0.2 μm) and then incubated at 37 °C for 6 weeks under aerobic conditions. At the end of that time, the mixture was extensively dialyzed versus PBS at 4 °C to remove unreacted ribose. This material was then chromatographed onto resin containing Affi-Gel 10 (Bio-Rad) to which had previously been adsorbed recombinant human soluble RAGE. After incubation, the resin was washed extensively with 10-column volumes of Tris-buffered saline (Tris, 0.02 m, pH 7.4; NaCl, 0.1 m) and elution of bound components performed employing glycine, 0.02 m; pH 2.5. The A 280 nm of each fraction was determined; positive fractions were immediately neutralized and dialyzed versus TBS. ELISA was performed essentially as described above employing varying concentrations of CML-BSA as standard reference. Wells of plastic dishes were coated with AGE-IgG, material eluted from the above column, and volume control (buffer retrieved after elution of RAGE-binding components subsequent to washing with 10-column volumes of glycine buffer). Primary antibody, affinity purified anti-CML IgG was employed (3 μg/ml) to identify CML-immunoreactivity in the various fractions. Finally, goat anti-rabbit IgG was added to detect sites of binding of primary antibody, and plates were developed as above.A 490 nm was detected. Human soluble recombinant RAGE was radiolabeled with 125I by incubation with IODO-BEADS (Pierce) to a specific activity of ≈4,000 to 5,000 cpm/ng protein. In all cases, after radioiodination, precipitation of the radiolabeled material in trichloroacetic acid exceeded 90%. CML modifications of proteins as indicated or native, unmodified proteins were loaded onto the wells of plastic dishes (Maxisorp, Nunc) (5 ng/well) in bicarbonate/carbonate buffer, pH 9.6, and incubated for 16 h at 4 °C. Material in the wells was aspirated, and unoccupied sites were blocked by incubation with PBS containing BSA (1%) for 2 h at 37 °C. Wells were washed twice with PBS containing octyl β-glucoside (0.005%) (Roche Molecular Biochemicals). A radioligand binding assay was performed in PBS containing BSA (0.2%) with the indicated concentration of 125I-human sRAGE alone or in the presence of a 50-fold molar excess of unlabeled human sRAGE or the indicated competitor for 2 h at 37 °C. At the end of that time, wells were washed rapidly five times with washing buffer as above; elution of bound material was performed in a solution containing heparin, 1 mg/ml. Solution was aspirated from the wells and counted in a gamma counter (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Equilibrium binding data were analyzed according to the equation of Klotz and Hunston (45Klotz I. Hunston D. J. Biol. Chem. 1984; 259: 10060-10062Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar):B = nKA/1 + KA, whereB indicates specifically bound ligand (total binding, wells incubated with tracer alone, minus nonspecific binding, wells incubated with tracer in the presence of excess unlabeled material), nindicates sites/cell, K indicates the dissociation constant, and A indicates free ligand concentration) using nonlinear least squares analysis (Prism; San Diego, CA). Specific binding of CML-BSA to radiolabeled RAGE was further determined by subtraction of nonspecific binding (counts obtained upon binding of radiolabeled sRAGE to immobilized BSA) from that obtained upon binding of radiolabeled sRAGE to immobilized CML-BSA. In the case binding to immobilized BSA, counts were negligible and less than 10% that observed in the presence of CML-BSA. Where indicated, pretreatment with either antibodies, soluble RAGE, or the indicated potential competitor was performed for 2 h prior to binding assay. In certain experiments, material eluted from the RAGE-Affi-Gel 10 columns (after passage of AGE-IgG) was tested as unlabeled competitor in the binding assay; controls were performed with equal volumes of glycine buffer. In other experiments, isolated RAGE domains were employed as unlabeled competitors. Human RAGE cDNA encoding the V, C1, or C2 domain was inserted into theEcoRI site of pGEX4T vector containing GST. Fusion proteins, V-GST, C1-GST, and C2-GST, were expressed in Escehrichia coli, purified on a glutathione-Sepharose column, and cleaved with thrombin (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). RAGE domains were then purified to homogeneity using glutathione-Sepharose and characterized by SDS-PAGE and amino-terminal sequencing (1Schmidt A.M. Vianna M. Gerlach M. Brett J. Ryan J. Kao J. Esposito C. Hegarty H. Hurley W. Clauss M. Wang F. Pan Y.C. Tsang T.C. Stern D. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 14987-14997Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 2Neeper M. Schmidt A.M. Brett J. Yan S.D. Wang F. Pan Y.C. Elliston K. Stern D. Shaw A. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 14998-15004Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar) prior to testing in the radioligand binding assay. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were isolated and characterized as described (46Jaffe E. Nachman R. Becker C. Minick R. J. Clin. Invest. 1973; 52: 2745-2756Crossref PubMed Scopus (6180) Google Scholar). Cells were cultured in 96-well tissue culture-treated wells (Corning, Corning, NY) in endothelial cell growth medium (Clonetics, San Diego, CA) until achieving confluence; medium was then changed to F-12 without serum (Life Sciences) immediately prior to stimulation with the indicated concentrations of CML-ovalbumin or native ovalbumin. Where indicated, cells were pretreated with rabbit anti-human RAGE IgG, nonimmune rabbit IgG for 2 h; in certain cases, CML-OVA was pretreated with the indicated concentration of sRAGE for 1 h prior to cell stimulation. After 6 h, cells were fixed in medium containing paraformaldehyde (2%) for 10 min followed by incubation in fresh paraformaldehyde (2%) for 16 h at 4 °C. Wells were washed twice with PBS and incubated with H2O2 (0.3%) for 10 min at room temperature. Wells were again washed twice with PBS and incubated in PBS containing BSA (2%) and non-fat dry milk (4%) to block nonspecific binding sites on the cell surface for 30 min at room temperature. After washing once in PBS, cell surface ELISA employing anti-VCAM-1 IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnologies, Santa Cruz, CA) (2 μg/ml) was performed for 2 h at 37 °C. Wells were washed four times and incubated with peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-goat IgG (Sigma) for 1 h at 37 °C. Wells were washed five times and sites of antibody binding detected with OPD as above; measurements ofA 490 nm per well were obtained. Assessment of functional VCAM-1 activity was determined using51Cr-labeled Molt-4 cells (ATCC) as described (14Schmidt A.M. Hori O. Chen J. Li J.F. Crandall J. Zhang J. Cao R. Yan S.D. Brett J. Stern D. J. Clin. Invest. 1995; 96: 1395-1403Crossref PubMed Scopus (829) Google Scholar). Chemotaxis assays were performed as described (10Schmidt A.M. Yan S.D. Brett J. Mora R. Stern D. J. Clin. Invest. 1993; 91: 2155-2168Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar) in 48-well microchemotaxis chambers (Neuro-Probe, Bethesda, MD) containing a polycarbonate membrane (8 μm; Nucleopore, Pleasanton, CA). Molt-4 cells, which bear cell surface RAGE, were grown in suspension in medium containing RPMI 1640, fetal bovine serum (10%), and antibiotics (Life Sciences). The lower chamber contained the chemotactic stimulus as indicated. N-Formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (Sigma) was employed as positive control. Molt-4 cells were added to the upper chamber (5 × 104 cells/well). After incubation for 4 h at 37 °C, nonmigrating cells on the upper surface of the membrane were gently scraped and removed; the membrane was then fixed in methanol (100%), and cells that had migrated through the membrane were stained with Giemsa (Sigma). Cells in nine high-powered fields were counted and mean ± S.E. reported. Where indicated, cells were incubated with the indicated F(ab′)2for 2 h at 37 °C prior to assay; in certain cases, CML-modified proteins were incubated with the indicated molar excesses of human soluble RAGE for 1 h at 37 °C prior to assay. In other experiments, cells were transfected with a construct encoding human RAGE in which the cytosolic domain (tail) was deleted employing superfect (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) (2 μg DNA/ml medium); pcDNA3 (Invitrogen) was employed as vector. Stimulation experiments were