HomeCirculationVol. 114, No. 17Right Ventricular Function and Failure Free AccessReview ArticlePDF/EPUBAboutView PDFView EPUBSections ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload citationsTrack citationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyReddit Jump toFree AccessReview ArticlePDF/EPUBRight Ventricular Function and FailureReport of a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Working Group on Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Right Heart Failure Norbert F. Voelkel, MD, Robert A. Quaife, MD, Leslie A. Leinwand, PhD, Robyn J. Barst, MD, Michael D. McGoon, MD, Daniel R. Meldrum, MD, Jocelyn Dupuis, MD, PhD, Carlin S. Long, MD, Lewis J. Rubin, MD, Frank W. Smart, MD, Yuichiro J. Suzuki, PhD, Mark Gladwin, MD, Elizabeth M. Denholm, PhD and Dorothy B. Gail, PhD Norbert F. VoelkelNorbert F. Voelkel From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Robert A. QuaifeRobert A. Quaife From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Leslie A. LeinwandLeslie A. Leinwand From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Robyn J. BarstRobyn J. Barst From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Michael D. McGoonMichael D. McGoon From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Daniel R. MeldrumDaniel R. Meldrum From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Jocelyn DupuisJocelyn Dupuis From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Carlin S. LongCarlin S. Long From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Lewis J. RubinLewis J. Rubin From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Frank W. SmartFrank W. Smart From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Yuichiro J. SuzukiYuichiro J. Suzuki From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Mark GladwinMark Gladwin From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author , Elizabeth M. DenholmElizabeth M. Denholm From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author and Dorothy B. GailDorothy B. Gail From the Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (N.F.V.); Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology, University of Colorado Hospital, Denver (R.A.Q.); CVI Institute, Department of Cardiology, Colorado University (L.A.L.); Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center Babies Hospital, New York, NY (R.J.B.); Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn (M.D.M.); Pulmonary Hypertension Association (M.D.M.); Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine (D.R.M.); Research Center, Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (J.D.); Department of Cardiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver (C.S.L.); Pulmonary Hypertension Center, University of California at San Diego (L.J.R.); Baylor College of Medicine, St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital/Texas Heart Institute, Houston (F.W.S.); Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (Y.J.S.); and National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md (M.G., E.M.D., D.B.G.). Search for more papers by this author Originally published24 Oct 2006https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.632208Circulation. 2006;114:1883–1891Knowledge about the role of the right ventricle in health and disease historically has lagged behind that of the left ventricle. Less muscular, restricted in its role to pumping blood through a single organ, and less frequently or obviously involved than the left ventricle in diseases of epidemic proportions such as myocardial ischemia, cardiomyopathy, or valvulopathy, the right ventricle has generally been considered a mere bystander, a victim of pathological processes affecting the cardiovascular system. Consequently, comparatively little attention has been devoted to how right ventricular dysfunction may be best detected and measured, what specific molecular and cellular mechanisms contribute to maintenance or failure of normal right ventricular function, how right ventricular dysfunction evolves structurally and functionally, or what interventions might best preserve right ventricular function. Nevertheless, even the proportionately limited information related to right ventricular function, its impairment in various disease states, and its impact on the outcome of those diseases suggests that the right ventricle is an important contributor and that further understanding of these issues is of pivotal importance.For this reason, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute convened a working group charged with delineating in broad terms the current base of scientific and medical understanding about the right ventricle and identifying avenues of investigation likely to meaningfully advance knowledge in a clinically useful direction. The following summary represents the presentations and discussions of this working group.The right ventricle is affected by and contributes to a number of disease processes, including perhaps most notably pulmonary hypertension caused by a variety of lung or pulmonary vascular diseases (cor pulmonale). Other diseases affect the right ventricle in different ways, including global, left ventricular–, or right ventricular–specific cardiomyopathy; right ventricular ischemia or infarction; pulmonary or tricuspid valvular heart disease; and left-to-right shunts.The Normal Right VentricleThe right ventricle pumps the same stroke volume as the left ventricle but with ≈25% of the stroke work because of the low resistance of the pulmonary vasculature. Therefore, by virtue of the Laplace relationship, the right ventricle is more thin walled and compliant (Figure 1). The geometry of the chamber is complex, consisting of an inlet (sinus) portion and an outlet (conus) section separated by the crista supraventricularis. Longitudinal shortening is a greater contributor to right ventricular stroke volume than short-axis (circumferential) shortening.1 It is linked to the left ventricle in several ways: by a shared wall (the septum), by mutually encircling epicardial fibers, by attachment of the right ventricular free wall to the anterior and posterior septum, and by sharing the pericardial space. The septum and free wall contribute approximately equally to right ventricular function. The right ventricular free wall blood supply is predominantly from the right coronary artery and receives about equal flow during systole and diastole. The left anterior descending coronary artery supplies the anterior two thirds of the septum, and the posterior descending artery supplies the inferoposterior one third. Download figureDownload PowerPointFigure 1. In idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH), the right ventricle (RV) is characterized by increased end-diastolic volume, change of the normal ventricular conformation tetrahedron to a crescentic trapezoid, and varying degrees of right ventricular hypertrophy (B). The right ventricle in severe idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension assumes a spherical shape with a greater cross-sectional area than the left ventricle (LV), which is normally larger (A). The more spherical-shaped right ventricle results in abnormal septal function that also impairs left ventricle performance. C, MR angiogram of the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries. Note the prominence of the right atrium and the right ventricle. There is heavy trabeculation of the right ventricle defining marked hypertrophy in the pulmonary hypertensive ventricle. The degrees of dilation, hypertrophy, and sphericity of the right ventricle are variable in patients with right ventricular dysfunction, but these factors are all present in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension.The Right Ventricle in Pulmonary HypertensionThe right ventricle is exposed to pressure overload by pulmonary valve stenosis or by chronic pulmonary hypertension from any cause (Table 1). An initial adaptive response of myocardial hypertrophy2 is followed by progressive contractile dysfunction. Chamber dilatation ensues to allow compensatory preload and maintain stroke volume despite reduced fractional shortening. As contractile weakening progresses, clinical evidence of decompensated right ventricular failure occurs, characterized by rising filling pressures, diastolic dysfunction,3 and diminishing cardiac output, which is compounded by tricuspid regurgitation due to annular dilatation and poor leaflet coaptation. The increased size and pressure overload of the right ventricle also produce diastolic dysfunction of the left ventricle.4,5 Thus, the function and size of the right ventricle are not only indicators of the severity and chronicity of pulmonary hypertension but impose an additional cause of symptoms and reduced longevity. Right ventricular function is the most important determinant of longevity in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.6–9TABLE 1. Classification of Pulmonary Hypertension761. Pulmonary arterial hypertension 1.1. Idiopathic (IPAH) 1.2. Familial (FPAH) 1.3. Associated with (APAH): 1.3.1. Collagen vascular disease 1.3.2. Congenital systemic-to-pulmonary shunts 1.3.3. Portal hypertension 1.3.4. HIV infection 1.3.5. Drugs and toxins 1.3.6. Other (thyroid disorders, glycogen storage disease, Gaucher’s disease, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, hemoglobinopathies, chronic myeloproliferative disorders, splenectomy) 1.4. Associated with significant venous or capillary involvement 1.4.1. Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (PVOD) 1.4.2. Pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis (PCH) 1.5. Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn2. Pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease 2.1. Left-sided atrial or ventricular heart disease 2.2. Left-sided valvular heart disease3. Pulmonary hypertension associated with lung diseases and/or hypoxemia 3.1. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 3.2. Interstitial lung disease 3.3. Sleep-disordered breathing 3.4. Alveolar hypoventilation disorders 3.5. Chronic exposure to high altitude 3.6. Developmental abnormalities4. Pulmonary hypertension due to chronic thrombotic and/or embolic disease 4.1. Thromboembolic obstruction of proximal pulmonary arteries 4.2. Thromboembolic obstruction of distal pulmonary arteries 4.3. Nonthrombotic pulmonary embolism (tumor, parasites, foreign material)5. Miscellaneous Sarcoidosis, histiocytosis X, lymphangiomatosis, compression of pulmonary vessels (adenopathy, tumor, fibrosing mediastinitis)The specific mechanisms underlying the development of right ventricular failure secondary to pulmonary hypertension are unclear. For example, it is uncertain whether some patients develop right ventricular myocardial ischemia, whether there is microvascular endothelial cell dysfunction, and whether or not myocytes undergo apoptosis. In severe, end-stage pulmonary hypertension, the shape of the right ventricle is changed from the normal conformation,10,11 and right ventricular wall stress and right ventricular free wall thickness appear to be inversely related12 (Figure 2). The mechanism by which a severely dilated “end-stage” right ventricle repairs itself after lung transplantation is also uncertain.13,14Download figureDownload PowerPointFigure 2. Inverse relationship between a calculated measure of end-systolic circumferential right ventricular wall stress (RVWS) and right ventricular systolic function as measured by ejection fraction (RVEF). Right ventricular wall stress summarizes the major factors that contribute to wall stress on the right ventricle including pressure, dilation or radius, and wall thickness. Note that the right ventricular wall stress is low in normally functioning ventricles, and the right ventricular wall stress is high in those with severe systolic dysfunction.Plasma levels of brain natriuretic peptide15–19 and troponin T20 correlate with pulmonary arterial pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Increases in brain natriuretic peptide plasma levels during serial follow-up visits are associated with increased mortality in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension patients. Paradoxically, however, atrial natriuretic peptides may promote cardiomyocyte survival.21The Right Ventricle in Left-Sided Heart FailureThe hypothesis that enlargement of the left ventricle could affect function of the right ventricle was advanced in 1910.22 However, the role of the right ventricle in congestive heart failure has been relatively overlooked until recently,23 in part because of the perception that it is somewhat of a passive conduit.24 This impression has been reinforced on the one hand by observations of successful outcomes in Glenn and Fontan procedures and has been refuted on the other by recognition of the sequelae of right ventricular myocardial infarction. It is now recognized that the most common cause of pulmonary hypertension is that associated with left ventricle failure. Reeves and Groves25 reported that 44% of patients with coronary artery disease at the time of coronary arteriography and right heart catheterization have pulmonary hypertension.Right ventricular dysfunction may develop in association with left ventricular dysfunction via multiple mechanisms: (1) left ventricular failure increases afterload by increasing pulmonary venous and ultimately pulmonary arterial pressure, partly as a protective mechanism against pulmonary edema26; (2) the same cardiomyopathic process may simultaneously affect the right ventricle; (3) myocardial ischemia may involve both ventricles; (4) left ventricular dysfunction may lead to decreased systolic driving pressure of right ventricular coronary perfusion, which may be a substantial determinant of right ventricular function27; (5) ventricular interdependence due to septal dysfunction may occur; and (6) left ventricular dilation in a limited pericardial compartment may restrict right ventricular diastolic function. Conversely, right ventricular pressure overload, as may occur with pulmonary hypertensive states, may compromise left ventricular function and lead to coincident evidence of left ventricular failure, such as pulmonary edema or effusion. Furthermore, when the right ventricle fails in the setting of left ventricular failure, it may be unable to maintain the flow volume required to maintain adequate left ventricular preload. Because of the multiple influences affecting right ventricular function due to left ventricular failure, right ventricular status may constitute a “common final pathway” in the progression of congestive heart failure and therefore may be a sensitive indicator of impending decompensation or poor prognosis.Despite variations in study populations, severity and substrates of disease, and methodologies of assessment, studies demonstrate substantial agreement that evidence of right ventricular dysfunction portends an inferior outcome. Patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy and left ventricular ejection fractions of 18±8% who die during the next 2 years have a worse right ventricular ejection fraction (24±10% by radionuclide ventriculography) than survivors (42±23%).28 Among patients with an acute myocardial infarction, the presence of a low radionuclide right ventricular ejection fraction (<0.38) plus low left ventricular ejection fraction (<0.30) results in 3 times the 1-year mortality of patients with poor left ventricular function alone.29Patients with myocarditis and poor right ventricular function, defined as a low right ventricular descent (difference between the diastolic and systolic distance from the right ventricle apical endocardium to a perpendicular line through the tricuspid annulus; normal=2±0.2 cm), have a higher likelihood of death or transplantation than those with normal right ventricular function. Indeed, right ventricular dysfunction is the strongest predictor of a negative outcome.30The right ventricular ejection fraction (measured by thermodilution techniques) of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy correlates linearly with echocardiographic left ventricular ejection fraction, and, by multivariate analysis of a large number of parameters, only right ventricular ejection fraction and left ventricular ejection fraction are predictors of survival.31 Survival is also predicted for patients with idiopathic dilated cardiom