Presenilin-1 (PS1) and −2 (PS2), which when mutated cause familial Alzheimer disease, have been localized to numerous compartments of the cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, nuclear envelope, endosomes, lysosomes, the plasma membrane, and mitochondria. Using three complementary approaches, subcellular fractionation, γ-secretase activity assays, and immunocytochemistry, we show that presenilins are highly enriched in a subcompartment of the endoplasmic reticulum that is associated with mitochondria and that forms a physical bridge between the two organelles, called endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria-associated membranes. A localization of PS1 and PS2 in mitochondria-associated membranes may help reconcile the disparate hypotheses regarding the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease and may explain many seemingly unrelated features of this devastating neurodegenerative disorder. Presenilin-1 (PS1) and −2 (PS2), which when mutated cause familial Alzheimer disease, have been localized to numerous compartments of the cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, nuclear envelope, endosomes, lysosomes, the plasma membrane, and mitochondria. Using three complementary approaches, subcellular fractionation, γ-secretase activity assays, and immunocytochemistry, we show that presenilins are highly enriched in a subcompartment of the endoplasmic reticulum that is associated with mitochondria and that forms a physical bridge between the two organelles, called endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria-associated membranes. A localization of PS1 and PS2 in mitochondria-associated membranes may help reconcile the disparate hypotheses regarding the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease and may explain many seemingly unrelated features of this devastating neurodegenerative disorder. Alzheimer disease (AD) is a late onset neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive neuronal loss, especially in the cortex and the hippocampus.1Goedert M Spillantini MG A century of Alzheimer's disease.Science. 2006; 314: 777-781Crossref PubMed Scopus (1616) Google Scholar The two main histopathological hallmarks of AD are the accumulation of extracellular neuritic plaques, consisting predominantly of β-amyloid (Aβ), and of neurofibrillary tangles, consisting mainly of hyperphosphorylated forms of the microtubule-associated protein tau.1Goedert M Spillantini MG A century of Alzheimer's disease.Science. 2006; 314: 777-781Crossref PubMed Scopus (1616) Google Scholar The vast majority of AD is sporadic, but mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin-1 (PS1), and presenilin-2 (PS2) have been identified in the rarer familial form, which is similar to sporadic AD but has an earlier age of onset. PS1 and PS2 are aspartyl proteases that cleave their substrates within transmembrane regions. The active forms of PS1 and PS2 are N- and C-terminal fragments, which are produced by cleavage of full-length presenilin in its “loop” domain.2Wakabayashi T De Strooper B Presenilins: members of the γ-secretase quartets, but part-time soloists too.Physiology. 2008; 23: 194-204Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar PS1 and PS2 are components of the γ-secretase complex that processes a number of plasma-membrane proteins, including Notch, Jagged, E-cadherin, and, most relevant to AD, APP. The γ-secretase complex also contains three other structural subunits: APH1, nicastrin (also called APH2), and presenilin enhancer protein 2.2Wakabayashi T De Strooper B Presenilins: members of the γ-secretase quartets, but part-time soloists too.Physiology. 2008; 23: 194-204Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar Following cleavage of APP by β-secretase, γ-secretase cleaves the ∼100-aa C-terminal “β-stub” to release small amyloidogenic fragments, 40- and 42-aa in length (Aβ40 and Aβ42), that have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD, as well as a ∼60-aa APP intracellular domain.1Goedert M Spillantini MG A century of Alzheimer's disease.Science. 2006; 314: 777-781Crossref PubMed Scopus (1616) Google Scholar Whereas the components of the γ-secretase complex are localized predominantly intracellularly,3De Strooper B Beullens M Contreras B Levesque L Craessaerts K Cordell B Moechars D Bollen M Fraser P George-Hyslop PS Van Leuven F Phosphorylation, subcellular localization, and membrane orientation of the Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilins.J Biol Chem. 1997; 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174: 915-921Crossref PubMed Scopus (974) Google Scholar via ER-mitochondria-associated membranes (ER-MAM, or MAM).14Csordas G Renken C Varnai P Walter L Weaver D Buttle KF Balla T Mannella CA Hajnoczky G Structural and functional features and significance of the physical linkage between ER and mitochondria.J Cell Biol. 2006; 174: 915-921Crossref PubMed Scopus (974) Google Scholar, 15Rusinol AE Cui Z Chen MH Vance JE A unique mitochondria-associated membrane fraction from rat liver has a high capacity for lipid synthesis and contains pre-Golgi secretory proteins including nascent lipoproteins.J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 27494-27502Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar MAM was described almost 20 years ago as a specific compartment involved in the synthesis and transfer of phospholipids between the ER and mitochondria.16Vance JE Phospholipid synthesis in a membrane fraction associated with mitochondria.J Biol Chem. 1990; 265: 7248-7256Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar More than two dozen proteins are concentrated in MAM (see Supplemental Table S1 at http://ajp.amjpathol.org),15Rusinol AE Cui Z Chen MH Vance JE A unique mitochondria-associated membrane fraction from rat liver has a high capacity for lipid synthesis and contains pre-Golgi secretory proteins including nascent lipoproteins.J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 27494-27502Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 17Myhill N Lynes EM Nanji JA Blagoveshchenskaya AD Fei H Carmine Simmen K Cooper TJ Thomas G Simmen T The subcellular distribution of calnexin is mediated by PACS-2.Mol Biol Cell. 2008; 19: 2777-2788Crossref PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar, 18Mendes CC Gomes DA Thompson M Souto NC Goes TS Goes AM Rodrigues MA Gomez MV Nathanson MH Leite MF The type III inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor preferentially transmits apoptotic Ca2+ signals into mitochondria.J Biol Chem. 2005; 280: 40892-40900Crossref PubMed Scopus (223) Google Scholar, 19Kopach O Kruglikov I Pivneva T Voitenko N Fedirko N Functional coupling between ryanodine receptors, mitochondria and Ca(2+) ATPases in rat submandibular acinar cells.Cell Calcium. 2007; 43: 469-481Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 20García-Pérez C Hajnóczky G Csordás G Physical coupling supports the local Ca2+ transfer between sarcoplasmic reticulum subdomains and the mitochondria in heart muscle.JBC. 2008; 283: 32771-32780Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar, 21Hayashi T Su TP Sigma-1 receptor chaperones at the ER-mitochondrion interface regulate Ca2+ signaling and cell survival.Cell. 2007; 131: 596-610Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1334) Google Scholar, 22Man WC Miyazaki M Chu K Ntambi J Colocalization of SCD1 and DGAT2: implying preference for endogenous monounsaturated fatty acids in triglyceride synthesis.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 1928-1939Crossref PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar, 23Jia Z Moulson CL Pei Z Miner JH Watkins PA Fatty acid transport protein 4 is the principal very long chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase in skin fibroblasts.J Biol Chem. 2007; 282: 20573-20583Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, 24Lewin TM Van Horn CG Krisans SK Coleman RA Rat liver acyl-CoA synthetase 4 is a peripheral-membrane protein located in two distinct subcellular organelles, peroxisomes, and mitochondrial-associated membrane.Arch Biochem Biophys. 2002; 404: 263-270Crossref PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar, 25Bionda C Portoukalian J Schmitt D Rodriguez-Lafrasse C Ardail D Subcellular compartmentalization of ceramide metabolism: mAM (mitochondria-associated membrane) and/or mitochondria?.Biochem J. 2004; 382: 527-533Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 26Szabadkai G Bianchi K Várnai P De Stefani D Wieckowski MR Cavagna D Nagy AI Balla T Rizzuto R Chaperone-mediated coupling of endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial Ca2+ channels.J Cell Biol. 2006; 175: 901-911Crossref PubMed Scopus (946) Google Scholar, 27Ardail D Popa I Bodennec J Louisot P Schmitt D Portoukalian J The mitochondria-associated endoplasmic-reticulum subcompartment (MAM fraction) of rat liver contains highly active sphingolipid-specific glycosyltransferases.Biochem J. 2003; 371: 1013-1019Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar, 28Riekhof WR Wu J Jones JL Voelker DR Identification and characterization of the major lysophosphatidylethanolamine acyltransferase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.J Biol Chem. 2007; 282: 28344-28352Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar, 29Pottekat A Menon AK Subcellular localization and targeting of N-acetylglucosaminyl phosphatidylinositol de-N-acetylase, the second enzyme in the glycosylphosphatidylinositol biosynthetic pathway.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 15743-15751Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 30Vance DE Walkey CJ Cui Z Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase from liver.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997; 1348: 142-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar, 31Stone SJ Vance JE Phosphatidylserine synthase-1 and -2 are localized to mitochondria-associated membranes.J Biol Chem. 2000; 275: 34534-35540Crossref PubMed Scopus (265) Google Scholar, 32Goetz JG Nabi IR Interaction of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.Biochem Soc Trans. 2006; 34: 370-373Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar, 33de Brito OM Scorrano L Mitofusin 2 tethers endoplasmic reticulum to mitochondria.Nature. 2008; 456: 605-610Crossref PubMed Scopus (1733) Google Scholar, 34Simmen T Aslan JE Blagoveshchenskaya AD Thomas L Wan L Xiang Y Feliciangeli SF Hung CH Crump CM Thomas G PACS-2 controls endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria communication and Bid-mediated apoptosis.EMBO J. 2005; 24: 717-729Crossref PubMed Scopus (423) Google Scholar including proteins involved in calcium homeostasis (eg, inositol triphosphate receptor isoform 3), in lipid metabolism (eg, fatty acid co-A ligase 4 [FACL4]), in intermediate metabolism (eg, glucose-6-phosphatase), in cholesterol metabolism (eg, acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 1), and in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria. A few nonenzymatic proteins are also concentrated in MAM (see Supplemental Table S1 at http://ajp.amjpathol.org),15Rusinol AE Cui Z Chen MH Vance JE A unique mitochondria-associated membrane fraction from rat liver has a high capacity for lipid synthesis and contains pre-Golgi secretory proteins including nascent lipoproteins.J Biol Chem. 1994; 269: 27494-27502Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 17Myhill N Lynes EM Nanji JA Blagoveshchenskaya AD Fei H Carmine Simmen K Cooper TJ Thomas G Simmen T The subcellular distribution of calnexin is mediated by PACS-2.Mol Biol Cell. 2008; 19: 2777-2788Crossref PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar, 18Mendes CC Gomes DA Thompson M Souto NC Goes TS Goes AM Rodrigues MA Gomez MV Nathanson MH Leite MF The type III inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor preferentially transmits apoptotic Ca2+ signals into mitochondria.J Biol Chem. 2005; 280: 40892-40900Crossref PubMed Scopus (223) Google Scholar, 19Kopach O Kruglikov I Pivneva T Voitenko N Fedirko N Functional coupling between ryanodine receptors, mitochondria and Ca(2+) ATPases in rat submandibular acinar cells.Cell Calcium. 2007; 43: 469-481Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 20García-Pérez C Hajnóczky G Csordás G Physical coupling supports the local Ca2+ transfer between sarcoplasmic reticulum subdomains and the mitochondria in heart muscle.JBC. 2008; 283: 32771-32780Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar, 21Hayashi T Su TP Sigma-1 receptor chaperones at the ER-mitochondrion interface regulate Ca2+ signaling and cell survival.Cell. 2007; 131: 596-610Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1334) Google Scholar, 22Man WC Miyazaki M Chu K Ntambi J Colocalization of SCD1 and DGAT2: implying preference for endogenous monounsaturated fatty acids in triglyceride synthesis.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 1928-1939Crossref PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar, 23Jia Z Moulson CL Pei Z Miner JH Watkins PA Fatty acid transport protein 4 is the principal very long chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase in skin fibroblasts.J Biol Chem. 2007; 282: 20573-20583Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, 24Lewin TM Van Horn CG Krisans SK Coleman RA Rat liver acyl-CoA synthetase 4 is a peripheral-membrane protein located in two distinct subcellular organelles, peroxisomes, and mitochondrial-associated membrane.Arch Biochem Biophys. 2002; 404: 263-270Crossref PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar, 25Bionda C Portoukalian J Schmitt D Rodriguez-Lafrasse C Ardail D Subcellular compartmentalization of ceramide metabolism: mAM (mitochondria-associated membrane) and/or mitochondria?.Biochem J. 2004; 382: 527-533Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 26Szabadkai G Bianchi K Várnai P De Stefani D Wieckowski MR Cavagna D Nagy AI Balla T Rizzuto R Chaperone-mediated coupling of endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial Ca2+ channels.J Cell Biol. 2006; 175: 901-911Crossref PubMed Scopus (946) Google Scholar, 27Ardail D Popa I Bodennec J Louisot P Schmitt D Portoukalian J The mitochondria-associated endoplasmic-reticulum subcompartment (MAM fraction) of rat liver contains highly active sphingolipid-specific glycosyltransferases.Biochem J. 2003; 371: 1013-1019Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar, 28Riekhof WR Wu J Jones JL Voelker DR Identification and characterization of the major lysophosphatidylethanolamine acyltransferase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.J Biol Chem. 2007; 282: 28344-28352Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar, 29Pottekat A Menon AK Subcellular localization and targeting of N-acetylglucosaminyl phosphatidylinositol de-N-acetylase, the second enzyme in the glycosylphosphatidylinositol biosynthetic pathway.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 15743-15751Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 30Vance DE Walkey CJ Cui Z Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase from liver.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997; 1348: 142-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar, 31Stone SJ Vance JE Phosphatidylserine synthase-1 and -2 are localized to mitochondria-associated membranes.J Biol Chem. 2000; 275: 34534-35540Crossref PubMed Scopus (265) Google Scholar, 32Goetz JG Nabi IR Interaction of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.Biochem Soc Trans. 2006; 34: 370-373Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar, 33de Brito OM Scorrano L Mitofusin 2 tethers endoplasmic reticulum to mitochondria.Nature. 2008; 456: 605-610Crossref PubMed Scopus (1733) Google Scholar, 34Simmen T Aslan JE Blagoveshchenskaya AD Thomas L Wan L Xiang Y Feliciangeli SF Hung CH Crump CM Thomas G PACS-2 controls endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria communication and Bid-mediated apoptosis.EMBO J. 2005; 24: 717-729Crossref PubMed Scopus (423) Google Scholar suggesting that it is a domain of the ER with specialized functions. Contacts between the two organelles are maintained by MAM-associated proteins, such as phosphofurin acidic cluster sorting protein 2, which controls the apposition of mitochondria with the ER and which appears to stabilize and regulate the interaction of ER and mitochondria.34Simmen T Aslan JE Blagoveshchenskaya AD Thomas L Wan L Xiang Y Feliciangeli SF Hung CH Crump CM Thomas G PACS-2 controls endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria communication and Bid-mediated apoptosis.EMBO J. 2005; 24: 717-729Crossref PubMed Scopus (423) Google Scholar Using a combination of biochemical and morphological approaches, we show here that PS1 and PS2 are highly enriched in MAM. The discovery that presenilins are not distributed homogeneously in the ER, but rather are enriched in the MAM subcompartment, has potentially significant implications regarding the pathogenesis of familial AD in particular and AD in general. Normal human fibroblasts (lines AE and TK), cultured primary rat cortical neurons, and mouse embryonic PS1-, PS2- and PS1/PS2-knockout fibroblasts, were kind gifts of Dr. Michio Hirano (Columbia University), Dr. David Sulzer (Columbia University), and Dr. Bart De Strooper (University of Leuven), respectively. Mutant FAD-A246E (AG06840) cells were obtained from the Coriell Institute for Medical Research (Camden, NJ). Mouse 3T3 cells and monkey COS-7 cells were available in the laboratory. We used the antibodies to aa 31-46 (Sigma P4985), aa 450-467 (Sigma P7854), and aa 303-316 (Calbiochem PC267) of human PS1, and to aa 324-335 of human PS2 (Sigma P0482 and Cell Signaling 2192). We also used antibodies to APH-1 (ABR PA1-2010), APP (a kind gift of T.-W. Kim, Columbia University35Landman N Jeong SY Shin SY Voronov SV Serban G Kang MS Park MK Di Paolo G Chung S Kim TW Presenilin mutations linked to familial Alzheimer's disease cause an imbalance in phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate metabolism.Proc NatlAcad Sci USA. 2006; 103: 19524-19529Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar), FACL4 (Abgent AP 2536b), Golgi matrix protein GM130/GOLGA2 (Monoclonal BD transduction #610822), inositol triphosphate receptor 3 (Millipore AB9076), Na,K-ATPase (Abcam ab7671), NDUFA9 (monoclonal; Molecular Probes A21344), nicastrin (Covance PRB-364P), presenilin enhancer protein 2 (Abcam ab62514), and SSRα (a generous gift of Howard Worman and Martin Wiedemann, Columbia University36Migliaccio G Nicchitta CV Blobel G The signal sequence receptor, unlike the signal recognition particle receptor, is not essential for protein translocation.J Cell Biol. 1992; 117: 15-25Crossref PubMed Scopus (53) Google Scholar). Mouse monoclonal anti-rabbit “bridge” antibodies were from Sigma (R1008; used at 1:2000). For Western blotting, samples were resuspended in 2× Laemmli buffer, heated for 10 minutes at 60°C, electrophoresed, transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride, and probed with antibodies. To detect mitochondria, we labeled the cells with 1 nmol/L MitoTracker Red CMXRos (MT Red; Invitrogen) in Dulbecco’s modified essential medium for 20 minutes at 37°C. After washing, we fixed the cells in chilled methanol for 20 minutes at −20°C, blocked them in 2.5% normal goat serum, and 0.1% Tween-20 in 1× PBS, and incubated them with primary antibodies. Cells were imaged in a single-plane by confocal microscopy with a Zeiss LSM510 microscope using a 63× and a 100× Plan-Neofluar, 1.25 NA objective lens. Percent co-localization of image signals was calculated using Image J (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij). Briefly, the area occupied by the signal for each marker (eg, MT Red, anti-PS1, anti-FACL4) was calculated from single confocal optical sections acquired with a 100×/1.4 objective. The thresholded image of the first marker signal (eg, MT Red) was used as a mask of the second marker signal (eg, anti-PS1). Percent colocalization was calculated as the area of the second marker signal within the mask divided by the total area of the second marker signal in the image. This analysis was performed on 5 to 6 images containing ∼5 to 10 cells per field, and the various colocalization data sets were compared using Manders’ overlap coefficient and Student’s t-test to measure statistical significance (P < 0.01). Purification of ER, MAM, and mitochondria was performed essentially as described.16Vance JE Phospholipid synthesis in a membrane fraction associated with mitochondria.J Biol Chem. 1990; 265: 7248-7256Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 31Stone SJ Vance JE Phosphatidylserine synthase-1 and -2 are localized to mitochondria-associated membranes.J Biol Chem. 2000; 275: 34534-35540Crossref PubMed Scopus (265) Google Scholar Cells and tissues were homogenized gently in isolation buffer (250 mmol/L mannitol, 5 mmol/L HEPES pH 7.4, and 0.5 mmol/L EGTA) with four strokes in a loose Potter-Elvehjem grinder (Kontes). The homogenate was centrifuged for 5 minutes at 600 ×g to remove cells debris and nuclei. The supernatant was centrifuged for 15 minutes at 10,500 ×g; the supernatant contained the ER/microsomal fraction and the pellet contained the crude mitochondrial fraction. The supernatant was centrifuged for 1 hour at 100,000 ×g to pellet the ER/microsomal fraction. The crude mitochondrial fraction was layered on top of a 30% Percoll gradient and centrifuged for 30 minutes at 95,000 ×g in a Beckman Coulter Ultracentrifuge. The upper band contained the MAM fraction and the lower band contained mitochondria free of ER. The upper band was diluted fivefold with isolation buffer and centrifuged at 6300 ×g for 10 minutes, twice, to obtain the mitochondrial fraction in the pellet. The supernatant containing the MAM was centrifuged at 100,000 ×g for 1 hour in a Beckman Ti70.1 rotor, and the resulting MAM pellet was resuspended in isolation buffer. The lower band was washed twice by centrifugation at 6300 ×g for 10 minutes to remove the Percoll, after which the mitochondria were resuspended in isolation buffer and combined with the mitochondria derived from the upper band. All fractions were quantitated for total protein content using the Bradford system (BioRad). To obtain the PM fraction, tissues were homogenized in STM 0.25 buffer (0.25 M/L sucrose, 10 mmol/L Tris·Cl pH 7.4, 1.0 mmol/L MgCl2; 4.5 ml/g tissue), using a loose-fitting Potter-Elvehjem grinder (Kontes) (10 strokes). Homogenates were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 260 ×g and the supernatant was kept on ice. The pellet, containing nuclei and cell debris, was resuspended in half the volume of the same buffer and homogenized with three strokes on the same loose grinder and pelleted again for 5 minutes at 260 ×g. Both supernatants were combined and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 1500 ×g. The pellet, containing the PM, was resuspended in twice the volume of STM 0.25 used initially and was further homogenized by three strokes, but using a tight-fitting grinder (Kontes). The homogenate was diluted by adding an equal volume of STM 2 buffer (2 M/L sucrose, 10 mmol/L Tris·Cl pH 7.4, 1.0 mmol/L MgCl2), and centrifuged for 1 hour at 113,000 ×g. The resultant low-density thin layer located near the top of the gradient, enriched in PM, was resuspended in 0.5 to 1 volume of STM 0.25 buffer. Endogenous γ-secretase activity was determined by Western blotting to detect the amount of APP intracellular domain derived from the cleavage of endogenous APP, as described.35Landman N Jeong SY Shin SY Voronov SV Serban G Kang MS Park MK Di Paolo G Chung S Kim TW Presenilin mutations linked to familial Alzheimer's disease cause an imbalance in phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate metabolism.Proc NatlAcad Sci USA. 2006; 103: 19524-19529Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar We incubated 50 μg of protein from each fraction in reaction buffer (10 mmol/L Tris-HCl, 150 mmol/L NaCl, 5 mmol/L EDTA, pH 7.4) for 3 hours at 37°C, followed by Western blotting with anti-APP. As a control, the same samples were assayed in the presence of 2 μmol/L compound E ([(2S)−2-{[(3,5-difluorophenyl)acetyl]amino}-N-[(3S)−1-methyl-2-oxo-5-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H−1,4-benzodiazepin- 3-yl]propanamide]; Alexis Biochemicals, ALX270-415-C250), a γ-secretase inhibitor.37Hansson CA Frykman S Farmery MR Tjernberg LO Nilsberth C Pursglove SE Ito A Winblad B Cowburn RF Thyberg J Ankarcrona M Nicastrin, presenilin, APH-1, and PEN-2 form active γ-secretase complexes in mitochondria.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 51654-51660Crossref PubMed Scopus (222) Google Scholar We also used a fluorescence based energy transfer-based γ-secretase activity assay to detect cleavage of an exogenously added secretase-specific peptide conjugated to two fluorescent reporter molecules (R&D Systems FP003) in serial dilutions of different subcellular fractions. As a control, the same samples were assayed in the presence of 2 μmol/L compound E. Human PS1 was transcribed and translated using a reticulocyte lysate system and imported into isolated mitochondria, as described.38Leuenberger D Bally NA Schatz G Koehler CM Different import pathways through the mitochondrial intermembrane space for inner membrane proteins.EMBO J. 1999; 18: 4816-4822Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar We isolated PM, crude mitochondria, and ER from mouse brain, and fractionated crude mitochondria further by isopycnic centrifugation30Vance DE Walkey CJ Cui Z Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase from liver.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997; 1348: 142-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar into a MAM fraction and a purified mitochondrial fraction. We evaluated each of these fractions by Western blot analysis, using antibodies to Na,K-ATPase as a marker for PM, to SSRα as a marker for ER, to Golgi matrix protein GM130 (GOLGA2) as a marker for Golgi, to inositol triphosphate receptor 3 as a marker for MAM, and to the subunit NDUFA9 as a marker for mitochondria (Figure 1A). All five markers were enriched in their respective compartments, but we note low levels of mitochondria NDUF9A were also present in the plasma membrane. Perhaps a number of mitochondrial proteins have been found in this compartment by others.39Bae TJ Kim MS Kim JW Kim BW Choo HJ Lee JW Kim KB Lee CS Kim JH Chang SY Kang CY Lee SW Ko YG Lipid raft proteome reveals ATP synthase complex in the cell surface.Proteomics. 2004; 4: 3536-3548Crossref PubMed Scopus (148) Google Scholar The MAM fraction was enriched for inositol triphosphate receptor isoform 3, a known MAM marker,18Mendes CC Gomes DA Thompson M Souto NC Goes TS Goes AM Rodrigues MA Gomez MV Nathanson MH Leite MF The type III inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor preferentially transmits apoptotic Ca2+ signals into mitochondria.J Biol Chem. 2005; 280: 40892-40900Crossref PubMed Scopus (223) Google Scholar confirming our ability to separate MAM from bulk ER and mitochondria to a degree sufficient for further analysis. We quantitated the amount of protein recovered in each of the subcellular fractions analyzed from whole mouse brain. Of the total amount of protein recovered in the ER fraction, we estimate that ∼13% ± 0.3% (n = 6) was in the MAM subfraction. This value reflects