HomeCirculationVol. 119, No. 2Intensive Glycemic Control and the Prevention of Cardiovascular Events: Implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA Diabetes Trials Free AccessReview ArticlePDF/EPUBAboutView PDFView EPUBSections ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload citationsTrack citationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyReddit Jump toFree AccessReview ArticlePDF/EPUBIntensive Glycemic Control and the Prevention of Cardiovascular Events: Implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA Diabetes TrialsA Position Statement of the American Diabetes Association and a Scientific Statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association Jay S. Skyler, Richard Bergenstal, Robert O. Bonow, John Buse, Prakash Deedwania, Edwin A.M. Gale, Barbara V. Howard, M. Sue Kirkman, Mikhail Kosiborod, Peter Reaven and Robert S. Sherwin Jay S. SkylerJay S. Skyler From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Richard BergenstalRichard Bergenstal From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Robert O. BonowRobert O. Bonow From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , John BuseJohn Buse From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Prakash DeedwaniaPrakash Deedwania From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Edwin A.M. GaleEdwin A.M. Gale From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Barbara V. HowardBarbara V. Howard From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , M. Sue KirkmanM. Sue Kirkman From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Mikhail KosiborodMikhail Kosiborod From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). , Peter ReavenPeter Reaven From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). and Robert S. SherwinRobert S. Sherwin From the University of Miami, Miami, Fla (J.S.S.); International Diabetes Center at Park Nicollet, Minneapolis, Minn (R.B.); Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Ill (R.O.B.); University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (J.B.); VA Central California Healthcare System, University of California San Francisco, Fresno (P.D.); University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (E.A.M.G., B.V.H.); MedStar Research Institute, Hyattsville, Md (B.V.H.); American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va (M.S.K.); Mid America Heart Institute of Saint Luke’s Hospital and University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City (M.K.); Carl T. Hayden VA Medical Center, Phoenix, Ariz (P.R.); and Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn (R.S.S.). Originally published17 Dec 2008https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.191305Circulation. 2009;119:351–357is corrected byCorrectionOther version(s) of this articleYou are viewing the most recent version of this article. Previous versions: December 17, 2008: Previous Version 1 Diabetes is defined by its association with hyperglycemia-specific microvascular complications; however, it also imparts a 2- to 4-fold risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although microvascular complications can lead to significant morbidity and premature mortality, by far the greatest cause of death in people with diabetes is CVD.Results from randomized controlled trials have demonstrated conclusively that the risk of microvascular complications can be reduced by intensive glycemic control in patients with type 11,2 and type 2 diabetes.3–5 In the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT), there was an ≈60% reduction in the development or progression of diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy between the intensively treated group (goal A1c, <6.05%; mean achieved A1c, ≈7%) and the standard group (A1c, ≈9%) over an average of 6.5 years. The relationship between glucose control (as reflected by the mean on-study A1c value) and risk of complications was log-linear and extended down to the normal A1c range (<6%) with no threshold noted.In the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS), participants newly diagnosed with type 2 diabetes were followed up for 10 years, and intensive control (median A1c, 7.0%) was found to reduce the overall microvascular complication rate by 25% compared with conventional treatment (median A1c, 7.9%). Here, too, secondary analyses showed a continuous relationship between the risk of microvascular complications and glycemia extending into the normal range of A1c, with no glycemic threshold.On the basis of these 2 large controlled trials, along with smaller studies and numerous epidemiological reports, the consistent findings related to microvascular risk reduction with intensive glycemic control have led the American Diabetes Association (ADA) to recommend an A1c goal of <7% for most adults with diabetes,6 recognizing that more or less stringent goals may be appropriate for certain patients. Whereas many epidemiological studies and meta-analyses7,8 have clearly shown a direct relationship between A1c and CVD, the potential of intensive glycemic control to reduce CVD events has been less clearly defined. In the DCCT, there was a trend toward lower risk of CVD events with intensive control (risk reduction, 41%; 95% CI, 10 to 68), but the number of events was small. However, 9-year post-DCCT follow-up of the cohort has shown that participants previously randomized to the intensive arm had a 42% reduction (P=0.02) in CVD outcomes and a 57% reduction (P=0.02) in the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, or CVD death compared with those previously in the standard arm.9The UKPDS of type 2 diabetes observed a 16% reduction in cardiovascular complications (combined fatal or nonfatal MI and sudden death) in the intensive glycemic control arm, although this difference was not statistically significant (P=0.052), and there was no suggestion of benefit on other CVD outcomes such as stroke. However, in an epidemiological analysis of the study cohort, a continuous association was observed such that for every percentage point of lower median on-study A1c (eg, 8% to 7%) there was a statistically significant 18% reduction in CVD events, again with no glycemic threshold.Because of ongoing uncertainty regarding whether intensive glycemic control can reduce the increased risk of CVD in people with type 2 diabetes, several large long-term trials were launched in the past decade to compare the effects of intensive and standard glycemic control on CVD outcomes in relatively high-risk participants with established type 2 diabetes. In 2008, 2 of these trials, Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease–Preterax and Diamicron Modified Release Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE) and the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial (VADT), were completed and showed no significant reduction in cardiovascular outcomes with intensive glycemic control. A third trial, Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD), terminated its glycemic control study early because of the finding of increased mortality in participants randomized to a strategy of very intensive glycemic control with a target A1c of <6%. The findings of these 3 major trials led the ADA, with representatives of the American Heart Association (AHA) and the American College of Cardiology (ACC), to reexamine the recommendations for glycemic targets in patients with diabetes, the majority of whom have type 2 diabetes.What Did the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA Diabetes Trials Show?The Table provides a summary of baseline characteristics, glycemic treatment strategies and goals, concomitant risk factor control, achieved glycemic control, and primary results of each of the 3 studies. The ACCORD study randomized 10 251 participants with either history of a CVD event (age, 40 to 79 years) or significant CVD risk (age, 55 to 79 years with anatomical CVD, albuminuria, left ventricular hypertrophy, or at least 2 other CVD risk factors) to a strategy of intensive glycemic control (target A1c <6.0%) or standard glycemic control (target A1c, 7.0% to 7.9%). Investigators used multiple glycemic medications in both arms. ACCORD participants were on average 62 years of age and had a mean duration of diabetes of 10 years, with 35% already treated with insulin at baseline. From a baseline median A1c of 8.1%, the intensive arm reached a median A1c of 6.4% within 12 months of randomization, whereas the standard group reached a median A1c of 7.5%. Other risk factors were treated aggressively and equally in both groups. The intensive glycemic control group had more use of insulin in combination with multiple oral agents, significantly more weight gain, and more episodes of severe hypoglycemia than the standard group. Table. Comparison of the 3 Trials of Intensive Glycemic Control and CVD OutcomesACCORDADVANCEVADTBMI indicates body mass index; I, intensive glycemic control; S, standard glycemic control; TZD, thiazolidinedione.*Medication rates for ACCORD are for any use during the study.Participant characteristics n10 25111 1401791 Mean age, y626660 Duration of diabetes, y10811.5 Sex, male/female, %39/6142/5897/3 History of CVD, %353240 BMI, kg/m2322831 Median baseline A1C, %8.17.29.4 On insulin at baseline, %351.552Protocol characteristics A1C goals (I vs S),* %<6.0 vs 7.0–7.9≤6.5 vs “based on local guidelines”<6.0 (action if >6.5) vs planned separation of 1.5 Protocol for glycemic control (I vs S)*Multiple drugs in both armsMultiple drugs added to gliclizide vs multiple drugs with no gliclizideMultiple drugs in both arms Management of other risk factorsEmbedded blood pressure and lipid trialsEmbedded blood pressure trialProtocol for intensive treatment in both armsOn-study characteristics Median duration of follow-up, y3.5 (Terminated early)55.6 Achieved median A1C (I vs S),* %6.4 vs 7.56.3 vs 7.06.9 vs 8.5 On insulin at study end (I vs S),* %77 vs 55*40 vs 2489 vs 74 On TZD at study end (I vs S),* %91 vs 58*17 vs 1153 vs 42 On statin at study end (I vs S),* %88 vs 88*46 vs 4885 vs 83 On aspirin at study end (I vs S),* %76 vs 76*57 vs 5588 vs 86 Smokers at study end, %1088 Mean blood pressure at study end, mm Hg Intensive glycemic control arm126/67136/74127/68 Standard glycemic control arm127/68138/74125/69 Weight changes, kg Intensive glycemic control arm3.5−0.1+7.8 Standard glycemic control arm0.4−1.0+3.4 Severe hypoglycemia (participants with ≥1 episodes during study), % Intensive glycemic control arm16.22.721.2 Standard glycemic control arm5.11.59.9Outcomes Definition of primary outcomeNonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD deathMicrovascular plus macrovascular (nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death) outcomesNonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death, hospitalization for heart failure, revascularization HR for primary outcome (95% CI)0.90 (0.78–1.04)0.9 (0.82–0.98); macrovascular, 0.94 (0.84–1.06)0.88 (0.74–1.05) HR for mortality findings (95% CI)1.22 (1.01–1.46)0.93 (0.83–1.06)1.07 (0.81–1.42)In February 2008, the glycemic control study of ACCORD was halted (embedded blood pressure and lipid studies are ongoing) on the recommendation of the study’s data safety monitoring board as a result of the finding of an increased rate of mortality in the intensive arm compared with the standard arm (1.41% versus 1.14% per year; 257 versus 203 deaths over a mean 3.5 years of follow-up; hazard ratio [HR], 1.22; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.46); there was a similar increase in cardiovascular deaths. The primary outcome of ACCORD (MI, stroke, or cardiovascular death) was reduced in the intensive glycemic control group because of a reduction in nonfatal MI, although this finding was not statistically significant when the study was terminated (0.90; 95% CI, 0.78 to 1.04; P=0.16).Exploratory analyses of the mortality findings of ACCORD (evaluating variables including weight gain, use of any specific drug or drug combination, and hypoglycemia) were unable to identify an explanation for the excess mortality in the intensive arm.10 In both study arms, participants with severe hypoglycemia had higher mortality than those without severe hypoglycemia. However, there was a complex interaction between hypoglycemia, study arm, and mortality: among participants with at least 1 episode of severe hypoglycemia, mortality was higher in those in the standard treatment arm, whereas among participants with no history of severe hypoglycemia, mortality was higher in those in the intensive treatment arm. Other prespecified subset analyses showed that participants with no previous CVD event and those who had a baseline A1c <8% had a statistically significant reduction in the primary CVD outcome.The ADVANCE study randomized 11 140 participants at sites in Europe, Australia/New Zealand, Canada, and Asia to a strategy of intensive glycemic control (with primary therapy being the sulfonylurea gliclizide and additional medications as needed to achieve a target A1c of ≤6.5%) or to standard therapy (in which any medication but gliclizide could be used, with the glycemic target set according to “local guidelines”). ADVANCE participants (required to be at least 55 years of age with either known vascular disease or at least 1 other vascular risk factor) were slightly older and of a high CVD risk similar to that in ACCORD participants. However, they had an average duration of diabetes that was 2 years shorter, lower baseline A1c (median, 7.2%), and almost no use of insulin at enrollment. The median A1c levels achieved in the intensive and standard arms were 6.3% and 7.0%, respectively, and maximal separation between the arms took several years to achieve. Use of other drugs that favorably affect CVD risk (aspirin, statins, ACE inhibitors) was lower in ADVANCE than in ACCORD or VADT.The primary outcome of ADVANCE was a combination of microvascular events (nephropathy and retinopathy) and major adverse cardiovascular events (MI, stroke, and cardiovascular death). Intensive glycemic control significantly reduced the primary end point (HR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.82 to 0.98; P=0.01), although this was due to a significant reduction in the microvascular outcome (0.86; 95% CI, 0.77 to 0.97; P=0.01), primarily development of macroalbuminuria, with no significant reduction in the macrovascular outcome (0.94; 95% CI, 0.84 to 1.06; P=0.32). There was no increase in overall or cardiovascular mortality in the intensive compared with the standard glycemic control arms.11VADT randomized 1791 participants with type 2 diabetes uncontrolled on insulin or maximal-dose oral agents (median entry A1c, 9.4%) to a strategy of intensive glycemic control (goal A1c, <6.0%) or standard glycemic control, with a planned A1c separation of at least 1.5%. Medication treatment algorithms were used to achieve the specified glycemic goals, with a goal of using similar medications in both groups. Median A1c levels of 6.9% and 8.5% were achieved in the intensive and standard arms, respectively, within the first year of the study. Other CVD risk factors were treated aggressively and equally in both groups, with the trial achieving excellent blood pressure control, high levels of aspirin and statin use, and a high degree of smoking cessation.12The primary outcome of VADT was a composite of CVD events (MI, stroke, cardiovascular death, revascularization, hospitalization for heart failure, and amputation for ischemia). During a median 5.6-year follow-up period, the cumulative incidence of the primary outcome was not significantly lower in the intensive arm (HR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.74 to 1.05; P=0.12). There were more CVD deaths in the intensive arm than in the standard arm (38 versus 29; sudden deaths, 11 versus 4), but the difference was not statistically significant. Post hoc subgroup analyses suggested that duration of diabetes interacted with randomization such that participants with duration of diabetes less than ≈12 years appeared to have a CVD benefit of intensive glycemic control, whereas those with longer duration of disease before study entry had a neutral or even adverse effect of intensive glycemic control. Other exploratory analyses suggested that severe hypoglycemia within the past 90 days was a strong predictor of the primary outcome and of CVD mortality, with an association of severe hypoglycemia with all-cause mortality apparent only for participants in the standard arm. An embedded ancillary study within the main VADT showed that baseline coronary or aortic calcium scores predicted future CVD events and that intensive glycemic control significantly reduced the primary CVD end point in those with low baseline coronary artery calcium scores but not in those with high baseline scores.What Are Potential Explanations for the Increased CVD Deaths With Intensive Glycemic Control in ACCORD?Numerous post hoc analyses have been unable to prove or disprove causes; in fact, the design of the study renders such “proof” elusive. Randomization to the intensive arm was associated with or led to many downstream effects such as higher rates of severe hypoglycemia; more frequent use of insulin, thiazolidinediones, other drugs, and drug combinations; and greater weight gain. Such factors may be associated statistically with the higher mortality rate in the intensive arm but may not be causative. It is biologically plausible that severe hypoglycemia could increase the risk of cardiovascular death in participants with high underlying CVD risk. This might be further confounded by the development of hypoglycemia unawareness, particularly in patients with coexisting cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (a strong risk factor for sudden death). Death resulting from a hypoglycemic event may be mistakenly ascribed to coronary artery disease, because there may not have been a blood glucose measurement and because there are no anatomic features of hypoglycemia detected postmortem. Other plausible mechanisms for the increase in mortality in ACCORD include weight gain, unmeasured drug effects or interactions, or the “intensity” of the ACCORD intervention (use of multiple oral glucose-lowering drugs along with multiple doses of insulin, frequent therapy adjustments to push A1c and self-monitored blood glucose to very low targets, and an intense effort to rapidly reduce A1c by ≈2% in participants entering the trial with advanced diabetes and multiple comorbidities).Because the ADVANCE trial did not show any increase in mortality in the intensive glycemic control arm, examining the differences between ADVANCE and ACCORD supports additional hypotheses. ADVANCE participants on average appeared to have earlier or less advanced diabetes, with shorter duration by 2 to 3 years and lower A1c at entry despite very little use of insulin at baseline. A1c was also lowered, even more gradually, in the ADVANCE trial, and there was no significant weight gain with intensive glycemic therapy. Although severe hypoglycemia was defined somewhat differently in the 3 trials, it appears that this occurred in <3% of intensively treated ADVANCE participants for the entire study duration (median, 5 years) compared with ≈16% of intensively treated subjects in ACCORD and 21% in VADT.It is likely that the increase in mortality in ACCORD was related to the overall treatment strategies for intensifying glycemic control in the study population—not the achieved A1c per se. The ADVANCE study achieved a median A1c in its intensive arm similar to that in the ACCORD study, with no increased mortality hazard. Thus, the ACCORD mortality findings do not imply that patients with type 2 diabetes who can easily achieve or maintain low A1c levels with lifestyle modifications with or without pharmacotherapy are at risk and need to “raise” their A1c.Why Did None of the Trials Show a Significant Benefit of Intensive Glycemic Control on CVD in Type 2 Diabetes—in Contrast to Many Epidemiological Studies and the DCCT Follow-Up Study?Although randomized controlled trials often confirm hypotheses grounded in observational evidence or physiological studies of surrogate end points, this is certainly not the first time that such trials have failed to do so. The results of ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VADT highlight the critical need for randomized controlled trials with meaningful clinical outcomes such as in these trials, to help answer major clinical questions.In the 3 glucose-lowering trials, other CVD risk factors were treated to a moderate or high degree, and likely as a result of this, all had lower rates of CVD in the standard arm than originally predicted. The evidence for CVD prevention by statin therapy, blood pressure treatment, aspirin therapy in high-risk participants, and other interventions is robust. In type 2 diabetes, in which other CVD risk factors are highly prevalent, the additive benefits of intensive glycemic control might be difficult to demonstrate except in even larger or longer trials. It is likely that a real benefit of glucose lowering on CVD in type 2 diabetes, even if it could be proven, is modest compared with and incremental to treatment of other CVD risk factors.Additionally, the 3 trials compared treatments to A1c levels in the “flatter” part of the observational glycemia–CVD risk curves (median A1c, 6.4% to 6.9% in the intensive arms compared with 7.0% to 8.4% in the standard arms). Their results should not be extrapolated to imply that there would be no cardiovascular benefit of glucose lowering from very poor control (eg, A1c >9%) to good control (eg, A1c <7%).All 3 trials were carried out in participants with established diabetes (mean duration, 8 to 11 years) and either known CVD or multiple risk factors, suggesting the presence of established atherosclerosis. Subset analyses of the 3 trials suggested a significant benefit of intensive glycemic control on CVD in participants with shorter duration of diabetes, lower A1c at entry, and/or absence of known CVD. The finding of the DCCT follow-up study, that intensive glycemic control initiated in relatively young participants free of CVD risk factors was associated with a 57% reduction in major CVD outcomes, supports the above hypothesis. Of note, the benefit on CVD in the DCCT–Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) required 9 years of follow-up beyond the end of the DCCT to become statistically significant.A recent report13 of 10 years of follow-up of the UKPDS cohort describes, for the participants originally randomized to intensive glycemic control compared with those randomized to conventional glycemic control, long-term reductions in MI (15% with sulfonylurea or insulin as initial pharmacotherapy and 33% with metformin as initial pharmacotherapy; both statistically significant) and in all-cause mortality (13% and 27%, respectively; both statistically significant). These findings support the hypothesis that glycemic control early in the course of type 2 diabetes may have CVD benefit. As is the case with microvascular complications, it may be that glycemic control plays a greater role before macrovascular disease is well developed and a minimal or no role when it is