Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) consist of a heterogeneous family of musculoskeletal disorders that represent the most common chronic orofacial pain condition.15Dworkin S.F. Fricton J.R. Hollender L. Huggins K.H. LeResche L. Lund J. Mohl N. Ohrbach R. Palla S.F. Sommers E.E. Stohler C. Truelove E.L. Von Korff M. Widmer C.G. Research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders: Review, criteria, examinations and specifications, critique.J Craniomandib Disord. 1992; 6: 302-355Google Scholar, 16Dworkin S.F. Huggins K.H. Le Resche L. Von Korff M. Howard J. Truelove E. Sommers E. Epidemiology of signs and symptoms in temporomandibular disorders: Clinical signs in cases and controls.JADA. 1990; 120: 273-281Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (659) Google Scholar, 57Okeson J.P. Adler R.C. Anderson G.C. Baragona P.M. Broker E.B. Falace D.A. Graff-Radford S.B. Kaplan A.S. McDonald C. McNeill C. Milliner E.K. Rosenbaum R.S. Seligman D.A. Differential diagnosis and management considerations of temporomandibular disorders.in: Okeson J.P. Orofacial Pain. Quintessence, Chicago, IL1996: 113-184Google Scholar Debilitating forms of TMD are associated with persistent pain in the region of the temporomandibular joint, the periauricular region, and muscles of the head and neck.15Dworkin S.F. Fricton J.R. Hollender L. Huggins K.H. LeResche L. Lund J. Mohl N. Ohrbach R. Palla S.F. Sommers E.E. Stohler C. Truelove E.L. Von Korff M. Widmer C.G. Research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders: Review, criteria, examinations and specifications, critique.J Craniomandib Disord. 1992; 6: 302-355Google Scholar, 16Dworkin S.F. Huggins K.H. Le Resche L. Von Korff M. Howard J. Truelove E. Sommers E. Epidemiology of signs and symptoms in temporomandibular disorders: Clinical signs in cases and controls.JADA. 1990; 120: 273-281Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (659) Google Scholar, 57Okeson J.P. Adler R.C. Anderson G.C. Baragona P.M. Broker E.B. Falace D.A. Graff-Radford S.B. Kaplan A.S. McDonald C. McNeill C. Milliner E.K. Rosenbaum R.S. Seligman D.A. Differential diagnosis and management considerations of temporomandibular disorders.in: Okeson J.P. Orofacial Pain. Quintessence, Chicago, IL1996: 113-184Google Scholar Five percent of US adults in the 2002 National Health Interview Survey reported TMD-type pain (6% of women, and 3% of men),35Isong U. Gansky S.A. Plesh O. Temporomandibular joint and muscle disorder-type pain in U.S. adults: The National Health Interview Survey.J Orofac Pain. 2008; 22: 317-322PubMed Google Scholar while an examination/survey of a representative sample of females in New York City found that 10% had examiner-diagnosed TMD.36Janal M.N. Raphael K.G. Nayak S. Klausner J. Prevalence of myofascial temporomandibular disorder in US community women.J Oral Rehabil. 2008; 35: 801-809Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar Individuals with TMD rate the intensity of its pain at 4.3, on average, using a 0 to 10 scale, which is comparable to the average intensity rating of 4.7 for back pain among people with that condition.70Von Korff M. Dworkin S.F. Le Resche L. Kruger A. An epidemiologic comparison of pain complaints.Pain. 1988; 32: 173-183Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (759) Google Scholar While the natural history of TMD has not been well studied, TMD has been reported to remit over a 5-year observational period in 33 to 49% of diagnosed cases and to remain persistent or recurrent in the remainder.56Ohrbach R. Dworkin S.F. Five-year outcomes in TMD: Relationship of changes in pain to changes in physical and psychological variables.Pain. 1998; 74: 315-326Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (153) Google Scholar, 59Rammelsberg P. LeResche L. 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Raven Press, New York, NY1995: 1-14Google Scholar As such, there is a substantial need to identify the risk factors that lead to the onset and maintenance of TMD. Most epidemiological studies of TMD have been limited to cross-sectional or case-control designs and have largely relied on convenience samples. These studies consistently report higher prevalence in females than in males, with a female-to-male ratio ranging from 2:1 in the general population to 8:1 in clinical settings.4Bush F.M. Harkins S.W. Harrington W.G. Price D.D. Analysis of gender effects on pain perception and symptom presentation in temporomandibular pain.Pain. 1993; 53: 73-80Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar, 66Solberg W.K. Epidemiology, incidence and prevalence of temporomandibular disorders.in: Laskin D. Greenfield W. Gale W. The President’s Conference of the Examination, Diagnosis, and Management of Temporomandibular Disorders. American Dental Association, Chicago, IL1983Google Scholar Numerous risk factors have been implicated, including: joint and muscle trauma, anatomical factors (eg, skeletal and occlusal relationships), pathophysiological factors (eg, bone and connective tissue disorders, hormonal differences, sensitization of peripheral and central nervous system pain processing pathways) and psychosocial factors (eg, depression and anxiety, emotional and perceptual responses to psychological stressors).6Carlsson G.E. Le Resche L. Epidemiology of temporomandibular disorders.in: Sessle B.J. Bryant P.S. Dionne R.A. Temporomandibular Disorders and Related Pain Conditions. IASP Press, Seattle, WA1995: 211-226Google Scholar However, due to the cross-sectional study design of these studies, it remains unclear if many of those putative risk factors predated TMD onset, and therefore represent causal influences on the risk of developing TMD, or whether the putative risk factors were a consequence of TMD. Significant improvements in study design occurred with the work of Dworkin et al who led the development of valid and reliable diagnostic methods and undertook a prospective study of enrollees in the Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound.6Carlsson G.E. Le Resche L. Epidemiology of temporomandibular disorders.in: Sessle B.J. Bryant P.S. Dionne R.A. Temporomandibular Disorders and Related Pain Conditions. IASP Press, Seattle, WA1995: 211-226Google Scholar, 16Dworkin S.F. Huggins K.H. Le Resche L. Von Korff M. Howard J. Truelove E. Sommers E. Epidemiology of signs and symptoms in temporomandibular disorders: Clinical signs in cases and controls.JADA. 1990; 120: 273-281Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (659) Google Scholar, 70Von Korff M. Dworkin S.F. Le Resche L. Kruger A. An epidemiologic comparison of pain complaints.Pain. 1988; 32: 173-183Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (759) Google Scholar, 71Von Korff M. Le Resche L. Dworkin S.F. First onset of common pain symptoms: A prospective study of depression as a risk factor.Pain. 1993; 55: 251-258Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar At baseline, they estimated the prevalence of painful TMD to be 12.1%, with a female-to-male ratio of approximately 2:1. Based on TMD symptoms reported in follow-up interviews, the annual incidence of TMD was 2%, with females tending to show a higher incidence rate than males.71Von Korff M. Le Resche L. Dworkin S.F. First onset of common pain symptoms: A prospective study of depression as a risk factor.Pain. 1993; 55: 251-258Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar Two risk factors were predictive of elevated incidence of TMD: a reported history of pain at other bodily sites, and positive responses to questions associated with depression. In the only prospective cohort study to have used clinical examinations to diagnose first-onset TMD, the annual incidence rate was 3.5% in the cohort of 171 females aged 18 to 34 years who were followed for up to3 years.13Diatchenko L. Slade G.D. Nackley A.G. Bhalang K. Sigurdsson A. Belfer I. Goldman D. Xu K. Shabalina S.A. Shagin D. Max M.B. Makarov S.S. Maixner W. Genetic basis for individual variations in pain perception and the development of a chronic pain condition.Hum Mol Genet. 2005; 14: 135-143Crossref PubMed Scopus (987) Google Scholar, 64Slade G.D. Diatchenko L. Bhalang K. Sigurdsson A. Fillingim R.B. Belfer I. Max M.B. Goldman D. Maixner W. Influence of psychological factors on risk of temporomandibular disorders.J Dent Res. 2007; 86: 1120-1125Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar Based on the preceding evidence and the biopsychosocial model of TMD proposed by Dworkin et al,18Dworkin S.F. Von Korff M. LeResche L. Epidemiologic studies of chronic pain: A dynamic-ecologic perspective.Ann Behav Med. 1992; 14: 3-11Google Scholar we created a heuristic model of causal influences contributing to onset and persistence of TMD and related conditions (Fig 1).11Diatchenko L. Nackley A.G. Slade G.D. Fillingim R.B. Maixner W. Idiopathic pain disorders–pathways of vulnerability.Pain. 2006; 123: 226-230Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar This model proposes that TMD, and its associated signs and symptoms, are influenced most proximally by 2 sets of intermediate phenotypes: psychological distress and pain amplification. Each of those intermediate phenotypes represents a constellation of more specific risk factors located distally in this causal web (eg, risk factors contributing to pain amplification include pro-inflammatory states, impaired pain regulation, cardiovascular function, and neuroendocrine function). There probably are synergistic effects between the 2 main intermediate phenotypes, such that the effect on TMD of one intermediate phenotype is enhanced by the other intermediate phenotype. Interactions between intermediate phenotypes and the contributions of more distal risk factors all take place in the presence of environmental contributions that further contribute to onset and persistence of painful TMD. The most distal contribution comes from genetic regulation of biological mechanisms that determine expression of intermediate phenotypes and their associated risk factors. Time is not depicted in the model, because its effects occur implicitly on a third dimension that is not readily shown in the diagram. However, time is recognized as an inevitable consideration in models of risk for chronic pain, because passage of time is a requirement for development of chronic pain. In cross-sectional and case-control studies, frequency of TMD is consistently greater in females than in males. In adults, age-specific prevalence displays an inverted U relationship, being greatest among people in their 40s, and lower in both younger and older age groups. However, in the prospective cohort study of TMD conducted among HMO enrollees in Seattle, WA,71Von Korff M. Le Resche L. Dworkin S.F. First onset of common pain symptoms: A prospective study of depression as a risk factor.Pain. 1993; 55: 251-258Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar the risk of developing TMD, as reported by subjects who completed follow-up interviews, was only marginally elevated for females compared with males (relative risk = 1.6, P > .10). There were progressively lower incidence rates of TMD onset among people aged 45 to 64 and 65+ compared with 18- to 44-year-olds, although the differences were not statistically significant. The more robust gender differences in prevalence observed in studies of clinic- versus population-based samples suggest that gender-related factors are more strongly associated with health care seeking and perhaps severity of the condition than with TMD onset per se. While it is clear that race and ethnicity are associated with clinical and laboratory pain reporting,19Edwards C.L. Fillingim R.B. Keefe F. Race, ethnicity and pain.Pain. 2001; 94: 133-137Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (378) Google Scholar, 20Edwards R.R. Fillingim R.B. Yamauchi S. Sigurdsson A. Bunting S. Mohorn S.G. Maixner W. Effects of gender and acute dental pain on thermal pain responses.Clin J Pain. 1999; 15: 233-237Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar, 28Green C.R. Anderson K.O. Baker T.A. Campbell L.C. Decker S. Fillingim R.B. Kaloukalani D.A. Lasch K.E. Myers C. Tait R.C. Todd K.H. Vallerand A.H. The unequal burden of pain: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in pain.Pain Medicine. 2003; 4: 277-294Crossref PubMed Scopus (802) Google Scholar their role as risk factors for TMD onset is unknown. Because lower socioeconomic status is frequently confounded with ethnic and racial status in the US, the actual role of culture, ethnicity or race as risk factors is similarly unknown, but obviously merits attention for both scientific and public health reasons.28Green C.R. Anderson K.O. Baker T.A. Campbell L.C. Decker S. Fillingim R.B. Kaloukalani D.A. Lasch K.E. Myers C. Tait R.C. Todd K.H. Vallerand A.H. The unequal burden of pain: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in pain.Pain Medicine. 2003; 4: 277-294Crossref PubMed Scopus (802) Google Scholar Plesh et al58Plesh O. Crawford P.B. Gansky S.A. Chronic pain in a biracial population of young women 1.Pain. 2002; 99: 515-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar reported that after adjusting for socioeconomic status, facial pain was significantly more common among Caucasian compared to African American women between the ages of 19 and 23. Consequently, the reliable demographic factors associated with prevalence of TMD pain remain gender and age. The primary clinical factor associated with TMD pain onset is the presence of other pain conditions2Andersson H.I. The course of non-malignant chronic pain: A 12-year follow-up of a cohort from a general population.Eur J Pain. 2004; 8: 47-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Google Scholar, 29Gureje O. Von Korff M. Simon G.E. Gater R. Persistent pain and well-being: A World Health Organization study in primary care.JAMA. 1998; 280: 147-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (1131) Google Scholar, 37John M.T. Miglioretti D.L. LeResche L. Von Korff M. Critchlow C.W. Widespread pain as a risk factor for dysfunctional temporomandibular disorder pain.Pain. 2003; 102: 257-263Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (124) Google Scholar, 42Macfarlane T.V. Blinkhorn A.S. Davies R.M. Kincey J. Worthington H.V. Predictors of outcome for orofacial pain in the general population: A four-year follow-up study.J Dent Res. 2004; 83: 712-719Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar although prospective cohort studies of people with TMD report that baseline TMD clinical findings themselves are remarkably unrelated to the progression of TMD pain.56Ohrbach R. Dworkin S.F. Five-year outcomes in TMD: Relationship of changes in pain to changes in physical and psychological variables.Pain. 1998; 74: 315-326Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (153) Google Scholar, 59Rammelsberg P. LeResche L. Dworkin S. Mancl L. Longitudinal outcome of temporomandibular disorders: A 5-year epidemiologic study of muscle disorders defined by research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders.J Orofac Pain. 2003; 17: 9-20PubMed Google Scholar There remains a substantial need to determine the incidence of TMD onset and persistence in the population. The second specific scientific aim of the OPPERA study examines the role of pain amplification in the onset and persistence of TMD. Pain amplification refers to alterations in peripheral and central nervous system processes that have the net effect of amplifying the perceptual response to nociceptive stimuli. Pain amplification is conceptualized as a general construct that subsumes more specific phenomena (eg, hyperalgesia, allodynia, central sensitization). The mechanisms contributing to pain amplification are believed to include both decreased function in pain inhibitory systems and enhancement in pain facilitatory pathways. Pain amplification represents both a trait-like characteristic potentially conferred by genetic endowment, but also a phenotype that can develop over time in response to emergent biological processes and/or environmental exposures. Pain amplification manifests as heightened responsiveness to quantitative sensory testing as well as spontaneous clinical pain from deep tissues such as muscles, joints, and visceral organs. In one of the few prospective studies of TMD onset, the most consistent predictor of developing a chronic pain disorder was the presence of another chronic pain condition at the baseline session.70Von Korff M. Dworkin S.F. Le Resche L. Kruger A. An epidemiologic comparison of pain complaints.Pain. 1988; 32: 173-183Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (759) Google Scholar Factors that influence pain sensitivity, psychological factors, and symptom perception may contribute to the development of a variety of chronic pain conditions independent of anatomical sites. Other prospective studies have shown that widespread pain is a risk indicator for dysfunction associated with painful TMD37John M.T. Miglioretti D.L. LeResche L. Von Korff M. Critchlow C.W. Widespread pain as a risk factor for dysfunctional temporomandibular disorder pain.Pain. 2003; 102: 257-263Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (124) Google Scholar and predicts lack of response to treatment. The outcomes of several case-control studies suggest that TMD risk is influenced by a state of pain amplification.43Maixner W. Fillingim R. Booker D. Sigurdsson A. Sensitivity of patients with painful temporomandibular disorders to experimentally evoked pain.Pain. 1995; 63: 341-351Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (320) Google Scholar, 44Maixner W. Fillingim R. Sigurdsson A. Kincaid S. Silva S. 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Evidence for generalized hyperalgesia in temporomandibular disorders patients.Pain. 2003; 102: 221-226Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar Specifically, in comparison to TMD-free controls: 1) TMD cases report lower thresholds of pain in response to mechanical pressure applied to the face or wrist; 2) TMD cases report greater magnitude estimates of pain in response to heat pulses applied to the face or the forearm; 3) TMD cases show greater temporal summation (ie, wind-up) of pain to repetitive thermal and mechanical stimuli; and 4) TMD cases demonstrate lower pain thresholds and tolerances to arm ischemia. In one of the few prospective studies of clinically diagnosed, first-onset TMD, individuals who were sensitive to noxious stimuli were significantly more likely to develop painful TMD than those who were less pain sensitive (risk ratio = 2.7).13Diatchenko L. Slade G.D. Nackley A.G. Bhalang K. Sigurdsson A. Belfer I. Goldman D. Xu K. Shabalina S.A. Shagin D. Max M.B. Makarov S.S. Maixner W. Genetic basis for individual variations in pain perception and the development of a chronic pain condition.Hum Mol Genet. 2005; 14: 135-143Crossref PubMed Scopus (987) Google Scholar An important, yet unresolved, question is whether baseline pain sensitivity influences the severity and persistence of pain experienced by individuals who develop TMD. It has been shown that severity of TMD-related pain reported by patients with TMD is associated with their sensitivity to standardized noxious stimuli24Fillingim R.B. Maixner W. Kincaid S. Sigurdsson A. Harris M.B. Pain sensitivity in patients with temporomandibular disorders: Relationship to clinical and psychosocial factors.Clin J Pain. 1996; 12: 260-269Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar and a possible linkage of pain persistence with clinical measures of pain report has been suggested.21Epker J. Gatchel R.J. Ellis III, E. 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Furthermore, compared to nondepressed subjects, subjects with moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms are about equally likely to develop TMD (odds ratio of 1:2 to 1:6). A more than 2-fold elevation in odds of TMD has been associated with relatively high levels of somatic awareness,59Rammelsberg P. LeResche L. Dworkin S. Mancl L. Longitudinal outcome of temporomandibular disorders: A 5-year epidemiologic study of muscle disorders defined by research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders.J Orofac Pain. 2003; 17: 9-20PubMed Google Scholar which is the tendency to report numerous physical symptoms in excess of that which can be explained by clinically signs and symptoms.22Escobar J.I. Burnam M.A. Karno M. Forsythe A. Golding J.M. Somatization in the community.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987; 44: 713-718Crossref PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar In a longitudinal study, Ohrbach and Dworkin56Ohrbach R. Dworkin S.F. 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Wesley A.L. Ellis E. Predicting chronicity in acute temporomandibular joint disorders using the research diagnostic criteria.J Am Dent Assoc. 1998; 129: 438-447Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar In a prospective study of 171 initially TMD-free females followed for up to 3 years, we found that anxiety, depression, and perceived stress each were significant risk factors for examiner-verified TMD onset (risk ratios ranging from 2:1 to 6:0).64Slade G.D. Diatchenko L. Bhalang K. Sigurdsson A. Fillingim R.B. Belfer I. Max M.B. Goldman D. Maixner W. Influence of psychological factors on risk of temporomandibular disorders.J Dent Res. 2007; 86: 1120-1125Crossref PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar Given these findings, there is a substantial need to document the relationship between preexisting psychological characteristics and the onset and persistence of TMD. Genetic variants that impact pain sensitivity and psychological traits, when coupled with environmental factors such as physical or emotional stress, may interact to produce a phenotype that is vulnerable to TMD (see Fig 1). As recently reviewed by Diatchenko et al,12Diatchenko L. Nackley A.G. Tchivileva I.E. Shabalina S.A. Maixner W. Genetic architecture of human pain perception.Trends Genet. 2007; 23: 605-613Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar both clinical and experimental pain perception are influenced by genetic factors.8Chesler E.J. Wilson S.G. Lariviere W.R. Rodriguez-Zas S.L. Mogil J.S. Identification and ranking of genetic and laboratory environment factors influencing a behavioral trait, thermal nociception, via computational analysis of a large data archive.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002; 26: 907-923Crossref PubMed Scopus (255) Google Scholar, 13Diatchenko L. Slade G.D. Nackley A.G. Bhalang K. Sigurdsson A. Belfer I. Goldman D. Xu K. 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COMT val158met genotype affects mu-opioid neurotransmitter responses to a pain stressor.Science. 2003; 299: 1240-1243Crossref PubMed Scopus (957) Google Scholar Although the relative importance of genetic versus environmental factors in human pain perception remains unclear, reported heritability for nociceptive and analgesic sensitivity in mice is estimated to range from 28 to 76%,50Mogil J.S. The genetic mediation of individual differences in sensitivity to pain and its inhibition.Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1999; 96: 7744-7751Crossref PubMed Scopus (375) Google Scholar and similar heritability estimates have been reported for clinical pain and experimental pain sensitivity in humans.54Nielsen C.S. Stubhaug A. Price D.D. Vassend O. Czajkowski N. Harris J.R. Individual differences in pain sensitivity: Genetic and environmental contributions.Pain. 2007; 136: 21-29Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar, 55Norbury T.A. MacGregor A.J. Urwin J. Spector T.D. McMahon S.B. Heritability of responses to painful stimuli in women: A classical twin study.Brain. 2007; 130: 3041-3049Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar Several recent studies have also established a genetic association with a variety of psychological traits and disorders. Comparisons of concordance rates in dizygotic and monozygotic twins have established that 30 to 50% of the individual variability in risk to develop a given anxiety disorder is due to genetic factors.27Gordon J.A. Hen R. Genetic approaches to the study of anxiety.Annu Rev Neurosci. 2004; 27: 193-222Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar The heritability of unipolar depression appears to be remarkable, with estimates between 40 and 70%.41Lesch K.P. Gene-environment interaction and the genetics of depression.J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2004; 29: 174-184PubMed Google Scholar Given the multifactorial nature of TMD, a large number of genetic variants are expected to contribute to the risk of TMD onset and persistence.12Diatchenko L. Nackley A.G. Tchivileva I.E. Shabalina S.A. Maixner W. Genetic architecture of human pain perception.Trends Genet. 2007; 23: 605-613Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar Advances in high throughput genotyping methods have led to discoveries that numerous genes are associated with TMD. Depression, anxiety, stress response, somatic awareness, affective disorders, and chronic pain have increased within the last few years. The same psychological characteristics are hypothesized to be intermediate phenotypes for TMD in the OPPERA heuristic model. A partial list includes genes that encode serotonin t