Article20 August 2010free access Ku prevents Exo1 and Sgs1-dependent resection of DNA ends in the absence of a functional MRX complex or Sae2 Eleni P Mimitou Eleni P Mimitou Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Lorraine S Symington Corresponding Author Lorraine S Symington Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Eleni P Mimitou Eleni P Mimitou Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Lorraine S Symington Corresponding Author Lorraine S Symington Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Author Information Eleni P Mimitou1 and Lorraine S Symington 1 1Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA *Corresponding author. Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 701 W. 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA. Tel.: +1 212 305 4793; Fax: +1 212 305 1741; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2010)29:3358-3369https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2010.193 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info In this study, we investigate the interplay between Ku, a central non-homologous end-joining component, and the Mre11–Rad50–Xrs2 (MRX) complex and Sae2, end-processing factors crucial for initiating 5′-3′ resection of double-strand break (DSB) ends. We show that in the absence of end protection by Ku, the requirement for the MRX complex is bypassed and resection is executed by Exo1. In contrast, both the Exo1 and Sgs1 resection pathways contribute to DSB processing in the absence of Ku and Sae2 or when the MRX complex is intact, but functionally compromised by elimination of the Mre11 nuclease activity. The ionizing radiation sensitivity of a mutant defective for extensive resection (exo1Δ sgs1Δ) cannot be suppressed by the yku70Δ mutation, indicating that Ku suppression is specific to the initiation of resection. We provide evidence that replication-associated DSBs need to be processed by Sae2 for repair by homologous recombination unless Ku is absent. Finally, we show that the presence of Ku exacerbates DNA end-processing defects established in the sae2Δ sgs1Δ mutant, leading to its lethality. Introduction DNA lesions arise spontaneously during normal cell metabolism or after treatment with DNA-damaging agents. Among these lesions, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are considered the most deleterious and if unrepaired or repaired inappropriately, they can lead to mutagenic events, such as chromosome loss, deletions, duplications or translocations. DSBs are repaired through non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), which directly rejoins DNA ends with no or limited homology, or by homologous recombination (HR), which requires a homologous template for repair and generally preserves genetic information at the break site. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, both pathways require the Mre11–Rad50–Xrs2 (MRX) complex, which is rapidly recruited to DSBs and signals checkpoint activation through the Tel1/ATM kinase, tethers DNA ends and regulates the initiation of 5′-3′ resection (Stracker et al, 2004; Mimitou and Symington, 2009). In addition, NHEJ requires Ku (a heterodimer encoded by the YKU70 and YKU80 genes in S. cerevisiae), Lif1, Nej1 and Dnl4 (DNA ligase IV), whereas HR requires proteins encoded by the RAD52 epistasis group genes (Krogh and Symington, 2004; Daley et al, 2005). The choice of the repair pathway used to repair DSBs is highly regulated to ensure that the cell engages the most appropriate one, thus optimizing genome stability. This is corroborated by the finding that certain types of DSB repair such as V(D)J recombination and meiotic recombination are linked to specific repair pathways (Keeney, 2001; Lee et al, 2004). The types of ends generated and the cell cycle stage are critical determinants governing the choice between repair pathways. NHEJ is the predominant pathway in G1, whereas HR is activated during S/G2 (Moore and Haber, 1996; Karathanasis and Wilson, 2002; Aylon et al, 2004; Ira et al, 2004; Barlow et al, 2008). One step where cell cycle control is exerted by cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) is the 5′-3′ nucleolytic degradation of DNA ends, which generates 3′ single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) tails, the substrate for binding by the Rad51 protein to initiate HR (Aylon et al, 2004; Ira et al, 2004; Zierhut and Diffley, 2008). In S. cerevisiae, end resection takes place by a two-step mechanism. Initially, the MRX complex with Sae2 endonuclease catalyse the removal of a short oligonucleotide(s) from the 5′ ends of the break. In the second step, the short 3′ overhangs created are further processed by two alternative pathways, one dependent on the 5′-3′ exonuclease Exo1 and the other dependent on the Sgs1 helicase and Dna2 helicase/endonuclease (Gravel et al, 2008; Mimitou and Symington, 2008; Zhu et al, 2008). Sae2 is directly phosphorylated by CDK activating the initiation of end processing; in addition, nuclear entry of Dna2 during S-phase is regulated by CDK (Huertas et al, 2008; Kosugi et al, 2009). The MRX complex and Ku rapidly, and almost simultaneously, bind independently to DNA ends after DSB formation (Wu et al, 2008). Mre11 exhibits exo- and endonuclease activities that are required for processing of meiotic DSBs, a subset of ionizing radiation (IR)-induced DSBs and DNA hairpins, but are dispensable for NHEJ, telomere maintenance and processive 5′-3′ resection of DNA ends generated by HO endonuclease (Bressan et al, 1998; Moreau et al, 1999; Rattray et al, 2001; Lobachev et al, 2002; Llorente and Symington, 2004). Ku requires a free DSB end for binding and once bound protects ends and mediates recruitment of downstream NHEJ factors (Daley et al, 2005). The dissociation of Ku from DSB ends in vivo is dependent on MRX and the timing correlates with bulk resection in preparation of HR (Wu et al, 2008). Several lines of evidence suggested that Ku dissociation is not merely a de facto result of resection, but instead is required to allow resection to occur. Deletion of YKU70 was shown to increase resection initiation both at DSBs and telomeres (Lee et al, 1998; Maringele and Lydall, 2002; Clerici et al, 2008), partially rescue the IR and methylmethane sulphonate (MMS) hypersensitivity observed in mre11Δ and rad50Δ mutants (Bressan et al, 1999; Wasko et al, 2009) and increase Rfa1 foci formation in response to I-SceI-induced DSBs during G1 (Barlow et al, 2008). Similarly, sae2Δ and mre11 nuclease-defective mutants exhibit persistent Mre11 and Sae2 foci at DSBs, supporting a more general mechanism by which MRX-Sae2 regulate protein turnover at the DNA ends (Lisby et al, 2004). These observations suggest that the first step of end resection executed by MRX-Sae2 serves to create a substrate less suitable for Ku binding thus committing cells to extensive resection and HR. To test this hypothesis, we combined genetic and physical assays to determine whether the loss of the first step in DSB resection can be rescued by concomitant loss of Ku. Indeed, we show that the DNA damage sensitivity of mutants defective for resection initiation, but not bulk resection, is suppressed in the absence of Ku. Exo1 and Sgs1, which are required for extensive resection, are responsible for this suppression. Finally, we show that the lethality of the sae2Δ sgs1Δ mutant can be bypassed by the yku70Δ mutation or by high-copy expression of EXO1, but not by the dnl4Δ mutation. These findings suggest that Ku inhibits growth by blocking access to Exo1 preventing resection in strains lacking Sae2 and Sgs1, and not by promoting lethal end-joining events. Results Suppression of the radiation sensitivity of mre11 mutants by deletion of YKU70 Null mutation of any of the three genes encoding members of the MRX complex renders the cells highly sensitive to IR (Ivanov et al, 1992; Tsubouchi and Ogawa, 1998; Bressan et al, 1999; Moreau et al, 2001). Notably, the mre11Δ IR sensitivity was shown to be suppressed by concomitant deletion of YKU70 (Bressan et al, 1999). The increased IR resistance of mre11Δ yku70Δ mutants is thought to originate from the loss of end protection by Ku allowing DSB ends to be processed even in the absence of Mre11. Given the redundancy of DSB resection pathways, we asked whether the yku70Δ suppression of the mre11Δ IR sensitivity is dependent on SGS1 and/or EXO1 by determining the plating efficiency of various mutant strains after IR exposure. In agreement with previous studies, we found that mre11Δ mutants exhibit high IR sensitivity (100-fold decrease in survival at 200 Gy), which is suppressed by deletion of YKU70 (Figure 1). The suppression does not apply to all HR mutants, as rad51Δ cannot be suppressed by yku70Δ, supporting the link between increased end processing and loss of DSB end protection. The IR sensitivity of the mre11Δ yku70Δ sgs1Δ mutant is comparable with the sensitivity of the mre11Δ yku70Δ double mutant, indicating that the suppression is independent of Sgs1. Conversely, exo1Δ negated the suppression, suggesting that in the absence of the MRX complex, Ku blocks access to Exo1 (Figure 1). In agreement with this hypothesis, EXO1 over-expression also suppressed the mre11Δ IR sensitivity (Figure 1) (Chamankhah et al, 2000; Tsubouchi and Ogawa, 2000; Moreau et al, 2001; Lewis et al, 2002). Deletion of DNL4 did not suppress the mre11Δ IR sensitivity, supporting the hypothesis that it is the loss of end protection by Ku that allows increased 5′-3′ end processing (Figure 1). Analogous findings were reported in Schizosaccharomyces pombe in which deletion of pku70 suppressed the IR and MMS sensitivity of rad50 or rad32 mutants in an exo1+-dependent manner (Tomita et al, 2003; Williams et al, 2008). Figure 1.Suppression of the mre11Δ IR sensitivity by YKU70 deletion. Exponentially growing cells of the indicated genotypes were 1:10 serially diluted, spotted onto YPD or selective plates and exposed to the indicated IR dose. Download figure Download PowerPoint To determine whether the presence of Ku at DSB ends interferes with end processing in the presence of a structurally but not functionally competent MRX complex, we used an allele of MRE11 (mre11-H125N) encoding a protein lacking endo- and exonuclease activities (Moreau et al, 1999; Krogh et al, 2005). For simplicity, this nuclease-defective allele is referred to as mre11-nd. In agreement with the previous studies, the mre11-nd mutant exhibited IR sensitivity only at high doses, with a 17-fold decrease in survival at 800 Gy (Figure 2A and B) (Moreau et al, 1999). Deletion of YKU70 in the mre11-nd mutant increased the IR resistance at 800 Gy by seven-fold (P=0.01) (Figure 2A and B). Interestingly, this increased resistance is dependent on both Exo1 and Sgs1. High-copy expression of EXO1 increased the mre11-nd resistance at 800 Gy by only two-fold (P=0.03) (Figure 2C), consistent with a previous study (Moreau et al, 2001). Our findings suggest that in the presence of a defective MRX complex, Ku provides a partial block to processing DSB ends by Exo1 and Sgs1. Figure 2.Phenotype of mre11-nd and mre11-nd sgs1Δ mutants. (A) Suppression of the mre11-nd IR sensitivity by the yku70Δ mutation (quantitation in (B)) or high-copy expression of EXO1 (quantitation in (C), *P=0.03, unpaired t-test). (D) Radiation sensitivity of mre11-nd mutants in conjunction with sgs1Δ or exo1Δ mutations. (E) Schematic representation of the chromosome III MAT locus used in the physical assay to assess resection of an HO-induced DSB. The 5′-3′ degradation destroys the StyI (S) and XbaI (X) recognition sites, which translates into the disappearance of the StyI/XbaI digestion fragments. (F) Southern blot analysis and (G) cut fragment intensity plots showing the kinetics of the cut fragment intensity disappearance as a ratio of the intensity 30 min after induction. The means from four experiments are presented, error bars indicate s.d. Download figure Download PowerPoint The mre11-nd defect was further characterized using a physical assay that monitors resection of an HO-induced DSB at the MAT locus in strains with an integrated PGAL1–HO fusion. The assay was performed in rad51Δ mutants in which the processed ends do not engage in repair facilitating their detection. Following synchronous HO cleavage by addition of galactose, resection at different distances from the break can be monitored by detecting restriction enzyme fragments with probes specific for that region. As 5′-3′ resection proceeds, a StyI site at 0.7 kb distal to the break and an XbaI site at 3 kb distal to the break are sequentially rendered ss; therefore, resistant to digestion (Figure 2E). As a result, after digesting genomic DNA with StyI/XbaI, the intensity of the bands corresponding to the DNA fragments diminishes over time. This analysis revealed that the disappearance of the fragment indicative of resection past the StyI site at 0.7 kb (Figure 2F and G) or the XbaI site at 3 kb (Figure 2F) is not altered in the mre11-nd strain, consistent with a previous study (Llorente and Symington, 2004). Moreover, deletion of YKU70 in the mre11-nd background did not increase processing of the cut fragment. Although the increased requirement for the Mre11 nuclease in response to high IR doses could reflect a dosage effect, we have previously shown that the mre11-nd mutant is proficient for resection of multiple HO-induced DSBs (Llorente and Symington, 2004). Thus, we favour the hypothesis that the differential phenotype and suppression of mre11-nd mutants by deletion of YKU70 in IR sensitivity and resection assays reflects the different requirements for processing IR (‘dirty’) versus endonuclease (‘clean’)-induced DSBs. For IR-induced breaks, the requirement for the Mre11 nuclease to process some ends is increased, making the suppression by the loss of Ku more obvious. Sgs1 becomes important in the absence of the nuclease activity of Mre11 Given that the suppression of the sensitivity to IR of mre11-nd by yku70Δ requires Sgs1, we hypothesized that in the presence of a defective MRX complex the helicase and nuclease activities of Sgs1-Dna2 provide some redundant activity to initiate end processing. Consistent with this idea, the mre11-nd sgs1Δ double mutant exhibited a synergistic defect in IR resistance, with a 1700-fold decrease in survival at 800 Gy compared with the wild-type strain (Figure 2D). A similar finding was reported by Budd and Campbell (2009). The mre11-nd exo1Δ mutant exhibited higher resistance to IR than the mre11-nd sgs1Δ mutant, suggesting that Exo1 is less important for the initial processing of ends than Sgs1-Dna2 when Ku is present (Figure 2D). The yku70Δ mutation conferred a significant increase in the IR resistance of the mre11-nd sgs1Δ mutant, again consistent with the view that Ku prevents access of ends to Exo1. The exo1Δ mre11-nd sgs1Δ triple mutant is inviable preventing analysis of end processing in the absence of these overlapping functions (Mimitou and Symington, 2008). For a more quantitative measure of DSB end processing, the disappearance of restriction fragments indicative of resection 0.7 and 3 kb from the HO-cut site was monitored in rad51Δ mre11-nd, rad51Δ sgs1Δ and rad51Δ mre11-nd sgs1Δ strains (Figure 2F). As noted above, the rad51Δ and rad51Δ mre11-nd mutants exhibited similar kinetics in the disappearance of the cut fragments over time. The rad51Δ sgs1Δ appeared slightly more defective in resection at both 0.7 and 3 kb, but the difference is not statistically significant. We consistently found a resection defect at both 0.7 and 3 kb in the rad51Δ mre11-nd sgs1Δ mutant (Figure 2F and G). At 120 min after HO induction, there is a two-fold decrease in the amount of ends resected at 0.7 kb (P=0.006) and a 2.5-fold decrease at 3 kb (P=0.0003) compared with rad51Δ. These results suggest that Sgs1 provides some redundant activity to initiate end resection in the absence of the Mre11 nuclease activity. This requirement for Sgs1 is more pronounced for IR-induced breaks than endonuclease-induced ends as evidenced by the high IR sensitivity of the mre11-nd sgs1Δ mutants compared with the subtle HO end-resection defect. sae2Δ mutants exhibit high IR sensitivity that is suppressed by deletion of YKU70 MRE11 and SAE2 belong to the same epistasis group with respect to DSB resection and sae2Δ mutants exhibit a similar phenotype to mre11-nd mutants (Rattray et al, 2001; Lobachev et al, 2002; Clerici et al, 2005). When tested for IR sensitivity, the sae2Δ mutant showed a 255-fold decrease in survival at 800 Gy. The IR sensitivity of the sae2Δ mutant is higher than mre11-nd and is exhibited at lower IR doses (Figure 3A and B). At 800 Gy, the mre11-nd mutant is 15-fold more resistant than the sae2Δ mutant (P=0.0026) (Figures 2B and 3B). Figure 3.Suppression of the sae2Δ mutant phenotype by YKU70 deletion. Radiation sensitivity of sae2Δ mutants: (A) spot assays and (B) survival plots as described in Figure 2C. *P=0.01 (unpaired t-test). (C) Epistatic relationship between sae2Δ and mre11-nd mutants, as shown by IR spot assays. Resection physical assay: (D) Southern blot analysis and (E) cut fragment intensity plots as described in Figure 2G. (F) Radiation sensitivity of sgs1Δ exo1Δ mutants, as indicated by spot assays. (G) CPT sensitivity of mre11-nd and sae2Δ mutants. Exponentially growing cells in SC minimal medium were 1:10 serially diluted and spotted on SC plates containing the indicated concentration of camptothecin in DMSO. Download figure Download PowerPoint The IR sensitivity of the sae2Δ mutant is highly suppressed by the yku70Δ mutation, resulting in almost equivalent survival to wild type. Similarly to the mre11-nd mutant, this effect is dependent on both SGS1 and EXO1. Note that the sae2Δ sgs1Δ yku70Δ mutant is viable, whereas the sae2Δ sgs1Δ mutant is not (discussed later). This suggests that loss of end protection by Ku allows Exo1 and Sgs1 to initiate 5′-3′ resection of DSBs, which normally requires Sae2. The requirement for exo1+ in the suppression of ctp1 (the functional counterpart of SAE2) by pku70Δ was previously reported in S. pombe (Limbo et al, 2007). High-copy expression of EXO1 also resulted in a significant suppression of the IR sensitivity of the sae2Δ mutant (24-fold increase in survival at 800 Gy, P=0.01) (Figure 3A and B), supporting the model that Exo1 competes with Ku at ends to initiate resection of a subset of breaks. The suppression conferred by yku70Δ in sae2Δ mutants could also be attributed to defects in NHEJ that allow time for redundant resection factors to act. Indeed, we found that sae2Δ dnl4Δ mutants are slightly more resistant to IR than sae2Δ (10-fold increase in survival at 800 Gy, P=0.0061), but still more sensitive than sae2Δ yku70Δ (Figure 3A). This suggests that both the end protection and NHEJ functions of Ku contribute to compromise initiation of DSB resection in sae2Δ mutants, in agreement with studies of resection of HO-induced DSBs in G1 cells (Clerici et al, 2008). However, we cannot exclude the possibility that the slight suppression rendered by dnl4Δ is due to the decreased stability of Ku binding at DSBs (Zhang et al, 2007). Notably, this suppression could not be detected in mre11-nd cells that are more resection proficient than sae2Δ (Figure 2A). The differential IR sensitivity of sae2Δ and mre11-nd mutants prompted us to test their epistatic relationship (Figure 3C). In the presence of Ku, the more severe phenotype conferred by sae2Δ is observed for the double mutant, but in the absence of Ku, the more severe phenotype conferred by mre11-nd is evident. This suggests that once the inhibitory function of Ku is bypassed, Sae2 is no longer required and a functional MRX complex is able to initiate resection, whereas the MRX complex remains compromised in the sae2Δ mre11-nd yku70Δ mutant. The resection of sequences 0.7 and 3 kb distal to the HO DSB was monitored by the disappearance of restriction fragments in sae2Δ strains as described above (Figure 2E). Unlike mre11-nd, the sae2Δ mutant exhibited a slight delay in the disappearance of both fragments (Figure 3D and E). More specifically, at 0.7 kb from the DSB, 43% of the fragment remains unprocessed 120 min after HO induction compared with 27% in rad51Δ (P=0.02). A similar difference was observed at 3 kb from the break in which 69% remained unprocessed after 120 min compared with 49% observed in rad51Δ (P=0.0003). Deletion of YKU70 in the rad51Δ sae2Δ mutant allowed increased processing of both fragments with kinetics similar to those observed for rad51Δ control cells (Figure 3E). The sae2Δ resection defect is less pronounced than the IR sensitivity, which is likely due to the increased requirement for Sae2-dependent cleavage of dirty ends. However, we cannot rule out the possibility that sae2Δ cells can repair one or two DSBs, but not the large number of DSBs created by the doses of IR used to observe sensitivity. To further validate the hypothesis that the suppression observed by the loss of Ku is due to increased initiation of resection, we tested whether mutants defective for extensive resection can be suppressed by yku70Δ. End resection is initiated in the exo1Δ sgs1Δ mutant, but only proceeds for about 100–700 nt (Mimitou and Symington, 2008; Zhu et al, 2008). The exo1Δ sgs1Δ mutant is sensitive to IR, but the sensitivity cannot be suppressed by yku70Δ (Figure 3F), suggesting that the block to resection established by Ku takes place at the first step of end processing. To ensure that the phenotypes observed for resection-defective mutants are not specific to IR-induced breaks, we also used camptothecin (CPT), which creates replication-associated DSBs. Similar to the findings with IR, the mre11-nd mutant was sensitive only at high CPT doses and was slightly suppressed by yku70Δ (Figure 3G). The sae2Δ mutant exhibited a higher CPT sensitivity than mre11-nd, and this was suppressed in the absence of Ku (Figure 3G). The synergistic sensitivity of combining mre11-nd with sgs1Δ was also observed for CPT, and, similar to IR, could be suppressed by yku70Δ. The phenotypes described are reminiscent of those observed after treating cells with IR, consistent with the idea that Ku protects DSB ends from degradation and this becomes limiting to resection when the MRX-Sae2 initial processing is compromised. The suppression of the sae2Δ IR sensitivity by yku70Δ led us to test whether the sporulation defect of sae2Δ/sae2Δ diploids might be similarly suppressed. We made a diploid homozygous null for SAE2 and YKU70 (sae2Δ/sae2Δ yku70Δ/yku70Δ) and compared its sporulation efficiency to SAE2/SAE2 and sae2Δ/sae2Δ diploids. As previously reported for W303, wild-type sporulation efficiency was approximately 50%, whereas sae2Δ/sae2Δ and sae2Δ/sae2Δ yku70Δ/yku70Δ failed to sporulate (data not shown). This indicates that during meiotic DSB processing, the absence of Ku is not enough to allow processing of the Spo11-bound ends by Sgs1 and/or Exo1. Increased levels of Ku sensitize mre11-nd and sae2Δ mutants to IR If Ku blocks resection in mutants compromised for the initial clipping of DNA ends, then one would predict that increased expression of Ku would render mre11-nd and sae2Δ mutants more sensitive to IR. This was tested by measuring the IR resistance of wild type, mre11-nd and sae2Δ mutants transformed with a high-copy number (2 μ) plasmid expressing YKU70 and YKU80. There was no effect on the survival of wild-type cells over-expressing Ku, suggesting that in the presence of functional MRX-Sae2, the initial cleavage is not compromised (Figure 4A and B). However, high-copy expression of YKU70-YKU80 sensitized the mre11-nd and sae2Δ mutants to 800 Gy by 30-fold (P=0.01) and four-fold (P=0.009), respectively (Figure 4B). It is notable that the survival of mre11-nd mutants over-expressing Ku at 800 Gy dropped to a level comparable with that seen by the sae2Δ mutant transformed with the empty vector, 0.11 and 0.08%, respectively. We conclude that, under conditions where the initial processing of the DSB ends cannot take place, increased/prolonged presence of Ku at DNA ends further impedes initiation of resection. Figure 4.YKU70/YKU80 over-expression sensitizes sae2Δ and mre11-nd mutants to IR. (A) Spot assays and (B) survival plots of wild type, sae2Δ and mre11-nd mutants transformed with empty or YKU70/YKU80 over-expressing vectors. Exponentially growing cells in SC-Ura to maintain selection of the plasmids were 1:10 serially diluted, spotted onto SC-Ura plates and exposed to IR. The means from at least three experiments are presented, error bars indicate s.d.; *P=0.01, **P=0.009. Download figure Download PowerPoint Suppression of the synthetic lethality of rad27Δ sae2Δ and sgs1Δ sae2Δ mutants by yku70Δ The RAD27 gene encodes a nuclease that functions to process Okazaki fragments during lagging strand DNA synthesis (Tishkoff et al, 1997). Deletion of RAD27 is lethal in combination with mutation of any one of the RAD52 group genes, including mre11Δ, sae2Δ and mre11-H125N, suggesting that MRX-Sae2 are required to process lesions generated in a rad27Δ strain (Symington, 1998; Moreau et al, 1999; Debrauwere et al, 2001). To determine whether deletion of YKU70 can suppress the rad27Δ synthetic lethality with sae2Δ or mre11-nd, diploids heterozygous for RAD27 and MRE11 or SAE2 were generated, and after sporulation, tetrads were dissected to determine whether viable rad27Δ mre11-nd yku70Δ or rad27Δ sae2Δ yku70Δ spores could be obtained (Figure 5A). After dissection, the plates were incubated at 23°C because the rad27Δ growth defect is suppressed at lower temperature. Even at 23°C, the rad27Δ sae2Δ double mutant was found to be lethal, but the lethality was suppressed by yku70Δ (Figure 5A). Some viable rad27Δ mre11-nd spore colonies were recovered that grew very slowly. Nevertheless, yku70Δ suppressed this growth defect to some extent, as rad27Δ mre11-nd yku70Δ mutants consistently survived after dissection (Figure 5A). To ensure that the suppression of the synthetic lethality is related to DNA end processing, we also made diploids heterozygous for YKU70, RAD27 and RAD55, and after sporulation found that no viable rad27Δ rad55Δ yku70Δ spores could be recovered (Figure 5A). Finally, deletion of YKU70 could not suppress the synthetic lethality of rad27Δ mre11Δ (data not shown). Although elimination of Ku partially suppresses the IR sensitivity of the mre11Δ mutant, the mre11Δ yku70Δ double mutant is still highly sensitive to IR with no survivors at 500 Gy (data not shown). Thus, it seems likely that the large number of lesions generated in the mre11Δ rad27Δ mutant cannot be repaired even in the absence of Ku. Figure 5.Genetic interactions between rad27Δ, mre11-nd, sae2Δ and sgs1Δ mutants. Viability and genotypes of spores derived from diploids heterozygous for the indicated mutations. (A) Deletion of YKU70 suppresses the synthetic lethality/growth defect of rad27Δ mutants with sae2Δ and mre11-nd, but not with rad55Δ. (B) Loss of Yku70 or EXO1 over-expression rescues the sae2Δ sgs1Δ synthetic lethality. Download figure Download PowerPoint As yku70Δ completely suppresses the rad27Δ sae2Δ growth defect, we tested whether yku70Δ can also suppress the sae2Δ sgs1Δ synthetic lethality (Tong et al, 2001; Ooi et al, 2003). The majority of the sae2Δ sgs1Δ mutants were inviable, but some small spore colonies formed (<20% were viable). However, the sae2Δ sgs1Δ yku70Δ triple mutant grew remarkably well (Figure 5B). We were unable to derive the sae2Δ sgs1Δ yku70Δ exo1Δ quadruple mutant from crosses, indicating that the survival of the triple mutant is dependent on Exo1 (Figure 5B). Furthermore, by introducing a high-copy EXO1 plasmid into a diploid heterozygous for SAE2 and SGS1 viable sae2Δ sgs1Δ spores that inherited the plasmid were recovered (Figure 5B). These data suggest that lethality of the sae2Δ sgs1Δ mutants is caused by their inability to process some physiological DNA intermediates that are also substrates for Ku, most likely DSBs. Telomere phenotypes associated with sae2Δ sgs1Δ Telomeres are specialized DNA–protein complexes that define the physical ends of linear chromosomes and protect them from end degradation. The protruding ssDNA 3′ overhang, the G tail, has a central function in modulating telomere length, as it serves as a substrate for extension by telomerase and it is formed by active resection of the C-strand after completion of DNA synthesis (Gilson and Geli, 2007). Ku is one of the factors that bind to telomeres protecting them from degradation (Polotnianka et al, 1998). As telomeres are physiological DNA structures that share important similarities with DSBs, it seemed possible that an alteration of the natural chromosome ends might be responsible for the sae2Δ sgs1Δ lethality. The sae2Δ sgs1Δ double mutant was recently shown to have short telomeres, a defect in telomere addition in G2-arrested cells and no detectable G tails (Bonetti et al, 2009). As described above, the sae2Δ sgs1Δ double mutant shows poor viability in the W303 strain background, but some rare viable spore