Article22 February 2018Open Access Transparent process Tau protein liquid–liquid phase separation can initiate tau aggregation Susanne Wegmann Corresponding Author Susanne Wegmann [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-5388-2479 Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Bahareh Eftekharzadeh Bahareh Eftekharzadeh Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Katharina Tepper Katharina Tepper German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany Search for more papers by this author Katarzyna M Zoltowska Katarzyna M Zoltowska Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Rachel E Bennett Rachel E Bennett Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Simon Dujardin Simon Dujardin Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Pawel R Laskowski Pawel R Laskowski orcid.org/0000-0002-8118-9030 Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Danny MacKenzie Danny MacKenzie Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Tarun Kamath Tarun Kamath Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Caitlin Commins Caitlin Commins Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Charles Vanderburg Charles Vanderburg Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Allyson D Roe Allyson D Roe Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Zhanyun Fan Zhanyun Fan Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Amandine M Molliex Amandine M Molliex Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA Search for more papers by this author Amayra Hernandez-Vega Amayra Hernandez-Vega Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology & Genetics, Dresden, Germany Search for more papers by this author Daniel Muller Daniel Muller orcid.org/0000-0003-3075-0665 Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Anthony A Hyman Anthony A Hyman Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Eckhard Mandelkow Eckhard Mandelkow German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany Max-Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Hamburg Outstation c/o DESY, Hamburg, Germany CAESAR Research Center, Bonn, Germany Search for more papers by this author J Paul Taylor J Paul Taylor Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA Search for more papers by this author Bradley T Hyman Corresponding Author Bradley T Hyman [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-7959-9401 Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Susanne Wegmann Corresponding Author Susanne Wegmann [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-5388-2479 Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Bahareh Eftekharzadeh Bahareh Eftekharzadeh Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Katharina Tepper Katharina Tepper German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany Search for more papers by this author Katarzyna M Zoltowska Katarzyna M Zoltowska Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Rachel E Bennett Rachel E Bennett Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Simon Dujardin Simon Dujardin Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Pawel R Laskowski Pawel R Laskowski orcid.org/0000-0002-8118-9030 Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Danny MacKenzie Danny MacKenzie Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Tarun Kamath Tarun Kamath Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Caitlin Commins Caitlin Commins Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Charles Vanderburg Charles Vanderburg Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Allyson D Roe Allyson D Roe Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Zhanyun Fan Zhanyun Fan Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Amandine M Molliex Amandine M Molliex Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA Search for more papers by this author Amayra Hernandez-Vega Amayra Hernandez-Vega Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology & Genetics, Dresden, Germany Search for more papers by this author Daniel Muller Daniel Muller orcid.org/0000-0003-3075-0665 Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Anthony A Hyman Anthony A Hyman Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland Search for more papers by this author Eckhard Mandelkow Eckhard Mandelkow German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany Max-Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Hamburg Outstation c/o DESY, Hamburg, Germany CAESAR Research Center, Bonn, Germany Search for more papers by this author J Paul Taylor J Paul Taylor Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA Search for more papers by this author Bradley T Hyman Corresponding Author Bradley T Hyman [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-7959-9401 Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Author Information Susanne Wegmann *,1,‡, Bahareh Eftekharzadeh1,‡, Katharina Tepper2,‡, Katarzyna M Zoltowska1, Rachel E Bennett1, Simon Dujardin1, Pawel R Laskowski3, Danny MacKenzie1, Tarun Kamath1, Caitlin Commins1, Charles Vanderburg1, Allyson D Roe1, Zhanyun Fan1, Amandine M Molliex4, Amayra Hernandez-Vega5, Daniel Muller3, Anthony A Hyman3, Eckhard Mandelkow2,6,7, J Paul Taylor4,8 and Bradley T Hyman *,1 1Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA 2German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany 3Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland 4Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA 5Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Cell Biology & Genetics, Dresden, Germany 6Max-Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Hamburg Outstation c/o DESY, Hamburg, Germany 7CAESAR Research Center, Bonn, Germany 8Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA ‡These authors contributed equally to this work *Corresponding author. Tel: +1 617 230 7184; E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author. Tel: +1 617 726 3987; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2018)37:e98049https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.201798049 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Abstract The transition between soluble intrinsically disordered tau protein and aggregated tau in neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease is unknown. Here, we propose that soluble tau species can undergo liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) under cellular conditions and that phase-separated tau droplets can serve as an intermediate toward tau aggregate formation. We demonstrate that phosphorylated or mutant aggregation prone recombinant tau undergoes LLPS, as does high molecular weight soluble phospho-tau isolated from human Alzheimer brain. Droplet-like tau can also be observed in neurons and other cells. We found that tau droplets become gel-like in minutes, and over days start to spontaneously form thioflavin-S-positive tau aggregates that are competent of seeding cellular tau aggregation. Since analogous LLPS observations have been made for FUS, hnRNPA1, and TDP43, which aggregate in the context of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, we suggest that LLPS represents a biophysical process with a role in multiple different neurodegenerative diseases. Synopsis The microtubule binding protein tau can undergo liquid-liquid phase separation under physiological conditions. Phosphorylated, FTD-mutant, and Alzheimer's disease brain tau is capable of forming droplets that can initiate the formation of aberrant, aggregated tau “seeds”. LLPS may play a role in different tauopathies. Full-length human tau can undergo liquid-liquid phase separation in neurons. In vitro studies show importance of phosphorylation and Frontotemporal Dementia mutations for tau LLPS. AD brain tau is competent of forming droplets. Tau droplets can transition into aggregates. Tau LLPS is a potential mechanism for aggregation initiation in tauopathies. Introduction Tau protein is the major constituent of neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and of various other forms of intracellular inclusions in frontotemporal dementias (FTDs). Tau is classically described as a soluble neuron-specific microtubule binding (MTB) protein; however, the connection between tau (mis)function and neurodegeneration is uncertain. It is clear, for example, that post-translational modifications (PTMs) and tau mutations predisposing to aggregation are both associated with neurodegeneration. Recently, soluble hyperphosphorylated high molecular weight tau was identified as a bioactive form, which can be released and taken up by neurons and initiate templated misfolding of cytoplasmic tau in neurons (Takeda et al, 2015). This soluble hyperphosphorylated tau is, however, clearly distinct from aggregated fibrillary tau in neurofibrillary tangles, despite both being implicated in tau toxicity. Tau is an exceptionally soluble protein, and the molecular mechanisms that link soluble tau to aggregated tau are unknown. We now report that tau—similar to several other neurodegenerative disease-associated proteins such as the prion-domain harboring RNA binding proteins FUS, TDP43, hnRNPA1 (King et al, 2012)—can undergo liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS), and we suggest that this observation may provide a biological mechanism for tau aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases. The longest isoform of tau in the human CNS contains a MTB region that contains four pseudo-repeats (R1–R4) plus flanking proline-rich regions (P1, P2, and P3; Gustke et al, 1994), a shorter (≈40 aa) C-terminal tail, and a long (≈250 aa) flexible N-terminal half of tau, which projects from the surface of microtubules in the MT-bound state (Goode et al, 1997), and forms a polyelectrolyte brush around fibrillary aggregates of tau (Sillen et al, 2005; Wegmann et al, 2013). The lack of a fixed tertiary protein structure classifies tau as an intrinsically disordered protein (IDP). Proteins that contain intrinsically disordered regions often have multiple biological functions (Wright & Dyson, 2014), and some of them aggregate in protein aggregation diseases, such as huntingtin protein in Huntington's disease, α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease, TDP43 and FUS in ALS, and tau in Alzheimer's disease and tauopathies (Uversky et al, 2008). Recent studies revealed that the RNA binding and stress granule-associated proteins FUS (Patel et al, 2015), hnRNPA1 (Molliex et al, 2015), and TDP43 (Conicella et al, 2016) have the ability to reversibly form intracellular membrane-less organelles. These reversible droplets represent physiologically active protein or protein-nucleic acid “bioreactors” (Hyman et al, 2014), which form through a process known as LLPS (Brangwynne et al, 2015). Such transient membrane-less organelles have multiple cellular functions, such as p-granule formation to establish intracellular gradients of RNA transcription (Brangwynne et al, 2009), the enrichment of RNA binding proteins in stress granules (Lin et al, 2015; Molliex et al, 2015), concentrating transcription factors in nucleoli (Berry et al, 2015), and the initiation of microtubule spindle formation (Jiang et al, 2015). However, the functional phase separation of nuclear proteins was shown to be disrupted by C9orf72 GR/PR dipeptide repeats (Lee et al, 2016) and is related to protein aggregation in neurodegeneration (Schmidt & Rohatgi, 2016). In most cases, the phase transition of these proteins is driven by so-called low complexity domains (LCDs) in their sequence, a term of somewhat inconclusive nomenclature that is often used to describe protein domains of low amino acid variance leading to inhomogeneous charge distribution or polarity distribution along the peptide backbone (Nott et al, 2015). For example, FUS, TDP-43, and hnRNPA1 contain “prion-like” LCDs that drive their phase separation. However, in the case of tau, no typical low complexity domain (LCD) exists in the protein sequence, but the intrinsic disorder and the inhomogeneous charge distribution of full-length tau (Lee et al, 1988) led us to postulate that tau may undergo a similar phase separation. In fact, recent reports using recombinant tau constructs support the argument that tau, despite having no defined LCDs, can undergo LLPS facilitated by crowding agents or RNA in vitro (Ambadipudi et al, 2017; Hernandez-Vega et al, 2017; Zhang et al, 2017). We now show that full-length human tau protein can efficiently undergo LLPS to form condensed liquid tau droplets in cell physiological conditions. We observed the formation of tau droplets not only ex vivo for post-translationally modified recombinant tau, but also in neurons in vitro and with strong evidence even in vivo, using high molecular weight hyperphosphorylated tau isolated from human Alzheimer brain. Importantly, tau LLPS is enabled and regulated by physiological and pathological-like tau phosphorylation, by disease-associated mutations, and can be induced in in vitro aggregation conditions. Similar to FUS and hnRNPA1 proteins (Molliex et al, 2015; Murakami et al, 2015; Patel et al, 2015), droplets of pathological tau “mature” through a viscous gel phase into protein aggregates; the tau aggregates become thioflavin-S positive, suggesting the emergence of the beta-pleated sheet conformation present in tau aggregates in vivo. It appears that the phase separation of tau at physiological protein concentrations may be catalyzed by an interplay of electrostatic interactions in the unstructured N-terminal half of tau, combined with hydrophobic interactions of the C-terminal MTB domain, which can stabilize tau droplets possibly through β-sheet structures. These findings complement and provide additional biological relevance to the recent reports showing in vitro tau LLPS of repeat domain constructs at rather high concentrations (Ambadipudi et al, 2017) and in the presence of aggregation triggering polyanionic RNA (Zhang et al, 2017). Together, our data strongly support the hypothesis that intracellular phase separation of tau leads to subcellular foci of high local concentration of tau, which may be important for physiological roles of tau, and—in the setting of aberrant phosphorylation or disease-relevant pro-aggregation mutations—lead to tau aggregation. By analogy to hnRNPA1 (Molliex et al, 2015)-, TDP-43 (Conicella et al, 2016)-, FUS (Murakami et al, 2015)-, and C9orf72-derived dipeptide repeats (Lee et al, 2016), tau LLPS could act to initiate tau aggregation in AD and FTD. We suggest that protein LLPS may be a biophysical mechanism underlying multiple protein aggregation and neurodegenerative diseases. Results Intrinsically disordered tau protein can accumulate in droplet-like assemblies in neurons Several disordered proteins with LCDs have been shown to undergo LLPS leading to liquid droplet formation in aqueous solution upon increasing the molecular crowding in the solution (Mitrea et al, 2016). Cells use LLPS to reversibly assemble membrane-less organelles such as stress granules, p-granules, or nucleoli (reviewed in Mitrea et al, 2016; Hyman et al, 2014). In a number of LLPS proteins, including Ddx4 (Nott et al, 2014), domains of low amino acid complexity introduce an unequal charge distribution along the protein backbone resulting in multivalency of these polypeptides with alternating patches of high positive or negative charge densities (Toretsky & Wright, 2014). The phase separation of these proteins is often driven by electrostatic interactions within the LCDs, or between them. Tau is intrinsically disordered (Fig 1A, Appendix Fig S1), and the distribution of charges in the longest human isoform of tau (2N4R, 441 aa) at physiological pH 7.4 shows per se a similar multivalent pattern (Wegmann et al, 2013): The N-terminus (≈aa 1–120) has a negative net charge, the middle domain (≈aa 121–250) has a large excess of positive charges, the repeat domain (TauRD, ≈aa 251–390) has a moderate excess of positive charges, and the C-terminus (≈aa 391–441) is negatively charged (Fig 1B). Figure 1. Droplet-like condensation of intrinsically disordered human tau protein in neurons Protein sequence and disorder prediction (PONDR) of the longest human tau isoform [2N4R, 441 amino acids (aa)]. The highly disordered N-terminal half (projection domain) contains two N-terminal repeats (N1, N2) and two proline-rich regions (P1, P2). The repeat domain (TauRD) consists of four pseudo-repeats (R1–R4), can transiently adopt short stretches of β-strand structure in R2 and R3, facilitates microtubule binding together with P2 + P3, and mediates the aggregation of tau. Single amino acid and average (sliding window of 6 aa) charge distribution along the tau441 sequence (at pH 7.4) reveal the following charged domains in tau441: the negatively charged N-terminal end (≈aa 1–120), a strongly positively charged middle domain (aa 121–250), the positively charged TauRD (aa 251–400), and a negatively charged C-terminal end (aa 401–441). Intracellular droplet-like accumulations of GFP-tau441 (white arrows) in primary cortical mouse neurons. Expression of GFP alone does not lead to droplets. Droplet dynamics in neurons is shown in Movie EV1. FRAP reveals incomplete recovery of droplet-like tau in neuronal cell bodies indicating an immobile fraction of GFP-tau441 molecules of ≈30%. Neurons growing in microfluidic chambers extend their axons in microgrooves (Takeda et al, 2015). Time-lapse imaging (#1–5, time interval ≈3 s) shows the movement of droplet-like GFP-tau441 (white arrows) in axons over time. Immunofluorescent labeling of neurons expressing GFP-tau441 shows that tau accumulations (white arrows) do not co-localize with lysosomes (LAMP1). In murine neuroblastoma cells (N2a) expressing GFP-tau441, droplet-like tau occurs in cells having a critical GFP-tau441 concentration (white star). In cells with low expression level (white square), GFP-tau binds to microtubule bundles; in cells with medium GFP-tau441 (white circle), excess GFP-tau441 fills the cell bodies. The graph shows the GFP fluorescence intensity in cell bodies with (pink) and without (gray) droplets. Cross-sectional profiles of cells with droplets suggest a similar tau concentration of GFP-tau on microtubules (white lines, black traces) and in droplets (pink lines and traces). Data information: In (D), data are presented as mean ± s.e.m., n = 9 droplets; data have been fitted with a one-phase exponential fit, r2 = 0.08215. In (G), average fluorescence intensity in cell bodies is plotted as mean ± s.e.m., n = 45 for “− droplets”, n = 17 for “+ droplets”. Download figure Download PowerPoint Based on this knowledge about the disorder and inhomogeneous charge distribution of tau, we postulated that human tau may also be able to undergo LLPS in neurons. To test this hypothesis, we expressed GFP-tagged full-length tau (GFP-tau441) in primary cortical mouse neurons. The expression of GFP-tau441 led to the formation of mobile intracellular droplet-like tau accumulations in the cytosol (Fig 1C, Movies EV1–EV3), and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) of intraneuronal GFP-tau441 droplets revealed a fast recovery rate with an immobile tau molecule fraction of ≈30% (Figs 1D and EV1A). Some droplet-like tau accumulations in axons of neurons grown in microfluidic chambers moved retro- as well as anterograde (Fig 1E, Movie EV4). Interestingly, GFP-tau441 droplets (Movies EV1–EV3) appeared less mobile compared to droplets formed by the N-terminal projection domain of tau441 (aa 1–256), GFP-tau256 (Movies EV5,EV6, EV7), maybe because of the ability of full-length GFP-tau441 but not GFP-tau256 to bind microtubules via the repeat domain. Click here to expand this figure. Figure EV1. Tau phosphorylated in cells can undergo LLPS Example FRAP images of GFP-tau441 droplet (green circle and arrowhead) in primary neurons. Recovery after photobleaching event appears rapid but incomplete. FRAP of tau aggregates in HEK TauRDP301S-CFP/YFP cells shows no recovery after photobleaching of the aggregates that have been initiated with brain lysate (5 μg/μl total protein) from human tauP301L transgenic mice (rTg4510 line). Insets show example images taken before bleaching and at t = 0 and 300 s. FRAP parameters were the same as in (A, C). Graph represents mean ± s.e.m. of n = 3 aggregates. FRAP of GFP-PolyQ aggregates that formed in primary cortical mouse neurons after overexpression for 24 h. PolyQ aggregates show no recovery after photobleaching. Insets show example images taken before bleaching and at t = 0 and 300 s. FRAP parameters were the same as in (A, B). Graph represents mean ± s.e.m. of n = 4 aggregates. Example FRAP experiment for GFP-tau441 expressed in primary cortical neurons. Cytosolic soluble GFP-tau441 shows rapid and complete recovery, whereas microtubule-bound GFP-tau441 in a neighboring cell recovers slightly slower. FRAP parameters were the same as in (A– C). Expression of AAV8 Dendra2-tau441 in the cortex of wild-type mice allows the visualization of droplet-like tau in cortical neuronal cell bodies (1–3) and processes (4–6) in vivo by two-photon microscopy. GFP expressing control neurons show a homogenous GFP distribution instead. Cell lysates from murine N2a cells and primary cortical mouse neurons (DIV7) expressing GFP-tau256 or GFP-tau441 were analyzed by Western blot for the content of human tau (Tau13) and phospho-tau using antibodies PHF-1 or a mix of p-Tau antibodies. Most abundant phosphorylation sites previously found in p-tau441 and deP-tau441 (*) by mass spectrometry (Mair et al, 2016). Most of these phospho-sites, for which specific antibodies were available, could be verified (red; blue = not detected) in the p-tau441 preparation used in this manuscript. Download figure Download PowerPoint We did not observe the fusion or fission of GFP-tau441 droplets in neurons, which can be seen as a typical behavior of liquid droplets. However, the observed FRAP recovery of the GFP-tau droplets excludes the possibility that the observed spherical droplets resemble large tau aggregates previously reported for mutant tau expressed in neurons (Hoover et al, 2010). Tau aggregates induced in HEK TauRDP301S-CFP/YFP cells, or GFP-polyQ aggregates in primary neurons, did not show recovery after photobleaching (Fig EV1B and C), whereas soluble GFP-tau in the cytosol and bound on microtubules showed fast recovery (Fig EV1D). Moreover, the expression of wild-type tau does not lead to intracellular tau aggregation, neither in vitro (Lim et al, 2014) nor in vivo. Furthermore, GFP-tau441 droplets did not co-localize with membrane-bound organelles like lysosomes (Fig 1F), endosomes (Appendix Fig S2A), or the endoplasmic reticulum (ER, Appendix Fig S2B). Interestingly, when tau441 N-terminally fused to the fluorescent protein Dendra2, Dendra2-tau441, was expressed in the cortex of living wild-type mice upon stereotactical injection of AAV Dendra2-tau441 into the somatosensory cortex, two-photon imaging through a cranial window revealed a heterogeneous distribution of unconverted green Dendra2-tau441 with spherical droplet-shaped accumulations in the cell bodies of neurons in cortex layer 2/3 (Fig EV1E, neuron #1–3). Some of these accumulations also occurred along neuritic projections (Fig EV1E, #4–6). In contrast, the distribution of GFP in neurons of the control AAV GFP-injected hemisphere was homogeneous in cell bodies and projections of transduced neurons. These data indicated that tau LLPS may also occur in the living brain. Notably, in N2a cells, GFP-tau droplets could mostly be observed in cells with sufficiently high GFP-tau expression levels (Fig 1G), whereas in primary neurons, droplets could also occur in neurons with rather low or medium GFP-tau441 expression levels. This indicated that tau LLPS in neurons may be regulated by additional factors. In neurons, tau is phosphorylated at multiple sites (Fig EV1F; Iqbal et al, 2005). Many of tau's physiological and pathological phosphorylation sites are located in the positively charged middle domain of the N-terminal half and in the repeat domain (Johnson & Stoothoff, 2004), where phosphorylation causes a local increase or a change in domain charge from positive to neutral or negative, and hence can change intra- and intermolecular interactions of tau. However, most previous in vitro studies on tau aggregation utilized recombinant non-phosphorylated tau from Escherichia coli, and in these studies, tau LLPS has not been observed. Phosphorylated human full-length tau undergoes LLPS in vitro We decided to describe the conditions for tau LLPS in more detail and produced recombinant full-length human tau (p-tau441, aa 1–441; Fig 2A) in SF9 insect cells, which are able to introduce PTMs including phosphorylation into recombinant tau (Tepper et al, 2014). Previously, the phosphorylation sites found in p-tau441 by mass spectrometry were reported to be similar to the phosphorylation of tau extracted from AD brains (Mair et al, 2016; Fig EV1G), with phosphorylation in the repeat domain (R1–R4), in the proline-rich region (P1 + P2), and some in the N-terminal insets (N1 and N2) of tau441 (Fig 2A). Here, we used Sf9 p-tau441 protein from the same source that was expressed and purified under identical conditions, and verified most of the reported phosphorylation sites in p-tau441 by Western blot analysis (Fig EV1G). Figure 2. Liquid droplet characteristics of p-tau441 Qualitative distribution of phosphorylation sites in p-tau441 [pS68/69, pT153, pT175, pT181, pS184, pS199, pS202, pT205, pS210, pT212, pS214, pT217, pT231, pS235, pS262, pS324, pY310, pS316, pS396, pS404, pS422 (Mair et al, 2016)]. The charge at pH 7.4 of domains in unphosphorylated tau441 is indicated as well. Liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) of p-tau441 in presence of molecular crowding (12.5% w/v Ficoll-400). No phase separation is observed without crowding agent or in the absence of p-tau441 protein. Liquid droplets formed by p-tau441 in the presence of 10% (w/v) PEG were negative stained with uranyl-acetate and visualized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). p-tau441 droplets are decorated with gold particles after immunogold labeling using anti-tau antibody K9JA. Shortly after formation (15 min), p-tau441 droplets stop to coalesce and often occur as doublets or triplets. With time (60 min), droplets grow in size but remain colloidal. Droplet fusion is shown in Movie EV1. p-tau441 droplets (in buffer with 10% PEG) exhibit glass surface wetting properties characteristics for liquids. Phase diagram of tau LLPS (p-tau441 concentration (μM) versus PEG concentration (% w/v). In conditions modeling the intraneuronal environment (∼2 μM tau, 10% PEG, pH 7.5), p-tau441 droplets can form at very high NaCl concentrations (up to 3 M NaCl) in the buffer. Guanidinium