Abstract Pseudoknots are key structure motifs of RNA and pseudoknotted RNAs play important roles in a variety of biological processes. Here, we present KnotFold, an accurate approach to the prediction of RNA secondary structure including pseudoknots. The key elements of Knot-Fold include a learned potential function and a minimum-cost flow algorithm to find the secondary structure with the lowest potential. KnotFold learns the potential from the RNAs with known structures using a self-attention-based neural network, thus avoiding the inaccuracy of hand-crafted energy functions. The specially-designed minimum-cost flow algorithm used by KnotFold considers all possible combinations of base pairs and selects from them the optimal combination. The algorithm breaks the restriction of nested base pairs required by the widely-used dynamic programming algorithms, thus facilitating the identification of pseudoknots. Using a total of 1605 RNAs as representatives, we demonstrate the successful application of KnotFold in predicting RNA secondary structures including pseudoknots with accuracy significantly higher than the state-of-the-art approaches. We anticipate that KnotFold, with its superior accuracy, will greatly facilitate the understanding of RNA structures and functionalities.

Accurate prediction of RNA secondary structure including pseudoknots through solving minimum-cost flow with learned potentials