Podcast Host: Dr. Andrew Huberman (Stanford Associate Professor - brain development, brain plasticity, and neural regeneration and repair fields).

Lab Website

YouTube

Podcast Guest: Dr. Maya Shankar ( cognitive scientist, former senior advisor to the White House, and Chair of the White House Social and Behavioral Sciences Team)

Website

Key takeaways

Adolescence fosters identity exploration, autonomy, and shame, impacting perceptions of change and self-acceptance (Segment 02).
Delight fuels exploration, enabling personal growth, and fulfillment, and embracing boundless opportunities for self-discovery (Segment 04).
Intrinsic motivation fosters genuine engagement, satisfaction, and personal growth in fulfilling pursuits (Segment 05).
Embracing curiosity and a growth mindset fosters success in competitive environments, driving innovation and personal development (Segment 06).
Unraveling curiosity's complexity enhances understanding of its significance in human nature and cognition (Segment 09).
Flexibility, cognitive direction, and thankfulness promote personal progress and meaningful relationships (Segment 11).
Open-mindedness and empathy enhance human connections and understanding (Segment 15).

Summary

The focal figure in the present episode is Dr. Maya Shankar, a cognitive scientist who has formerly held positions as a senior advisor to the White House and as the Chair of the White House Social and Behavioral Sciences Team. The person in question fulfills the twin function of creator and host for the podcast named "A Slight Change of Plans." Dr. Huberman and Dr. Maya go into several subjects like the development and evolution of identities, the impact of beliefs and internal narratives on self-perception, and the application of methodical introspection to determine personal values and set goals. The authors also discuss the debate surrounding ways for effectively managing and cultivating resilience when confronted with uncertain situations, particularly ones that require individuals to reevaluate their societal standing and personal identity. In her narrative, Dr. Shankar provides a comprehensive account of her personal experience in the process of reconstructing her identity following a setback that abruptly ended her early professional trajectory. Furthermore, the author offers an extensive elucidation of numerous scientifically-based strategies that can be utilized to proficiently define and demarcate objectives, structure our endeavors towards these objectives, and maintain a consistent degree of motivation. This particular episode presents a comprehensive collection of tools and a strategic plan that is substantiated by empirical evidence derived from scientific research. The primary objective of this endeavor is to assist individuals in assessing their identities and objectives, as well as fostering constructive personal development in light of various changes.

(01). 00:05:15 Identity Foreclosure, Identity Paralysis, Throughlines

The concept of identity foreclosure has a significant impact on individuals during their formative years. The process of acquiring behavior patterns extends beyond just observation and imitation of parental or peer models, as these influential figures frequently force their own sets of beliefs and expectations upon us. This phenomenon has the potential to constrain our cognitive framework and impede our ability to recognize and actualize our authentic capabilities and ambitions. The process of overcoming the biases and restrictions that are ingrained in individuals during their developmental years necessitates a deliberate and conscious endeavor. The concept of identity encompasses not just one's actions, but also encompasses one's views and values, which are frequently shaped by the social environment experienced throughout childhood. Regrettably, there is a tendency to place excessive emphasis on personal achievements and occupational roles while constructing one's self-identity. From a young age, individuals are commonly posed with the question, "What career path do you aspire to pursue in adulthood?" as opposed to inquiring about their desired personal qualities and characteristics. This cognitive framework excessively associates our sense of self with our behaviors, so impeding our ability to conceive other possibilities for the future. According to Dr. Maya, the inherent and significant nature of our yearning for identities lies in the fact that they bestow meaning and purpose upon our existence. Hence, the complete elimination of IDs is not a viable approach. It is imperative to exercise greater mindfulness while associating our identities with external factors, to assuring congruence with our authentic selves [1].

References

Zhang, L.-f., Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), J.D. Wright, Editor. 2015, Elsevier: Oxford. p. 938-946.

(02). 00:12:10 Identity & Adolescence; “Essence” & Shame

Neuroscientific investigations have elucidated substantial alterations that occur inside the brain during the period of puberty and adolescence. One notable transformation that has been seen is the increasing aspiration for autonomy. Adolescents frequently encounter the existential quandary of self-identification as they navigate the process of emancipating themselves from the societal constraints that have shaped their upbringing, thereby undergoing a phenomenon known as identity foreclosure. For the initial instance, individuals begin to contemplate, "What is the desired identity I wish to embody?" What are the aspirations and desires that lie beyond the confines of the societal framework in which I was brought up? This phenomenon is prevalent during adolescence. One other obstacle that we encounter is to the adherence to the notion of inherent attributes that are perceived as unchangeable. Research indicates that both young children and adults tend to hold beliefs on these intrinsic attributes. The aforementioned conviction in our inherent nature may engender the perception of immutable attributes inside ourselves, hence potentially engendering sentiments of guilt. In the present situation, shame encompasses more than a mere sentiment of personal inadequacy; it entails a profound sense of inherent moral deficiency or ineptitude. One potential drawback associated with prioritizing the essential component is its potential to restrict cognitive flexibility, potentially fostering the perception of human incapacity for change [2].

Figure 01. Puberty and functional brain development in humans [3].

References

2. Branje, S., et al., Dynamics of Identity Development in Adolescence: A Decade in Review. J Res Adolesc, 2021. 31(4): p. 908-927.

3. Dai, J. and K.S. Scherf, Puberty and functional brain development in humans: Convergence in findings? Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2019. 39: p. 100690.

(03). 00:16:58 Delight & Awe

In a study, researchers conducted an empirical investigation that included a substantial number of individuals in their sample. The findings revealed a significant occurrence of encounters characterized by a feeling of astonishment, as a considerable 62% of participants reported encountering awe within the month before to the study. Awe is a psychological phenomenon characterized by intense emotional responses of awe. Elicitation can be triggered by a variety of stimuli, encompassing natural phenomena, human individuals, unforeseen events, and encounters with artistic elements. This exemplifies the diverse sources of wonder. Moreover, the findings of the study unveiled a significant correlation between occurrences of awe and thorough assessments of individuals' overall well-being, encompassing several aspects such as overall pleasure with life, positive emotional states, and a sense of life's value. This discovery suggests that the sensation of wonder has the potential to positively impact an individual's psychological and emotional well-being, thereby significantly contributing to their overall level of life satisfaction. This study highlights the significance of awe as a perceptual element within the realm of spirituality, therefore offering further substantiation for its correlation with overall well-being. The authors suggest that further examination is necessary to gain a full understanding of the underlying mechanisms via which awe produces these benefits, thereby recommending for future research in this intriguing area. Moreover, the study explores the intrinsic nature of astonishment, revealing compelling discoveries. The sensation of awe often evokes a sense of humility, leading individuals to acknowledge their place among the vast expanse of the universe. Furthermore, it fosters a sense of gratitude for one's own being and facilitates a deeper understanding of personal aspirations, so enriching one's perspectives. The research acknowledges the significance of joy as a comparably influential emotion, albeit distinguished by its more fleeting quality. The sensation of delight can emerge from various sources, including beauty, humor, or unforeseen events, thereby cultivating a sense of satisfaction among humans. In conclusion, the study highlights the importance of awe as a potent emotional encounter that exhibits a robust correlation with spirituality. The recognition and embrace of feelings characterized by profound amazement and intense happiness have the potential to augment an individual's overall sense of satisfaction and enjoyment in their existence. Both feelings of astonishment and pleasure have substantial effects on our daily existence. The emotion of awe has the capacity to evoke sensations of wonder and enigma, thereby forming a profound connection to entities or events that transcend our own existence. Conversely, the experience of pleasure engenders feelings of happiness and enhances our engagement with the immediate environment. By assigning significance to various emotional states, individuals have the ability to enhance their overall well-being and achieve a more fulfilling existence [4].

Figure 02. Emotional processing and brain activity [5].

References

4. Büssing, A., Wondering Awe as a Perceptive Aspect of Spirituality and Its Relation to Indicators of Wellbeing: Frequency of Perception and Underlying Triggers. 2021. 12.

5. Spies, M., et al., Default mode network deactivation during emotion processing predicts early antidepressant response. Translational Psychiatry, 2017. 7: p. e1008.

(04). 00:23:00 Delight & Possibilities for Self

The concepts of joy and self-possibilities are inherently interconnected. Delight encompasses a range of positive emotions, such as delight, pleasure, and contentment, which are evoked by many circumstances, such as witnessing a captivating sunset or engaging in a profound conversation. The phenomenon of experiencing delight has been found to increase an individual's receptiveness to novel prospects, resulting in a willingness to partake in daring behavior and investigate uncharted territories, so fostering an optimistic perspective toward the world. The concept of self encompasses a range of possibilities that contribute to personal development, the acquisition of knowledge, and transformative experiences, ultimately leading to a satisfying and purposeful life. Engaging in a diverse range of activities is widely regarded as advantageous for individuals since it promotes both personal fulfillment and the realization of one's potential. These activities encompass engaging with natural habitats, fostering creativity, providing aid to others, establishing objectives, embracing ambiguity, and maintaining receptiveness to novel encounters. The profound influence of joy and potential becomes evident in their capacity to enhance our overall well-being and satisfaction, directing our attention toward personal growth and the limitless opportunities that lie ahead [6].

Figure 03. Modulating musical reward [7].

References

6. Ahrholdt, D.C., S.P. Gudergan, and C.M. Ringle, Enhancing loyalty: When improving consumer satisfaction and delight matters. Journal of Business Research, 2019. 94: p. 18-27.

7. Mas-Herrero, E., A. Dagher, and R.J. Zatorre, Modulating musical reward sensitivity up and down with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Nature Human Behaviour, 2018. 2(1): p. 27-32.

(05). 00:35:58 Intrinsic Motivation; Juilliard & Courage

The concept of intrinsic motivation holds great importance in the realm of developmental psychology as it promotes the occurrence of spontaneous exploration and curiosity. The exploration of open-ended cognitive development is of great significance in promoting the advancement of human cognition, thereby attracting the attention of researchers in the field of developmental robotics. Intrinsic motivation pertains to engaging in an activity based on personal enjoyment and curiosity, without being influenced by external rewards or coercion. Intrinsic motivation pertains to the underlying desire that drives individuals to participate in activities only for the inherent satisfaction they offer, regardless of external stimuli such as rewards or time limitations. An individual who partakes in the act of reading a book out of a sincere and inquisitive interest in the narrative or subject matter exhibits intrinsic motivation, as opposed to an individual who reads only as a result of the requirement to produce a report for an academic course. There are multiple theoretical frameworks that seek to clarify the concept of intrinsic motivation and its underlying mechanisms. A scientific discourse exists over the primary influence on human behavior, wherein certain scientists argue that external motivators, such as monetary incentives or social recognition, exert a substantial impact. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation suggests that the action itself holds intrinsic value and acts as the primary source of reward. The underlying principle of intrinsic motivation is based on the understanding of human desires and impulses. Just as humans have a fundamental need to fulfill biological imperatives such as hunger and thirst to maintain their survival, they also possess psychological needs that are crucial for individual growth and general well-being. The aforementioned demands encompass the desire for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Intrinsic motivation refers to the satisfaction of psychological needs and the participation in activities that are marked by challenge, curiosity, and innate gratification, regardless of extrinsic inducements. The essence of this concept is in the attainment of contentment through engagement in a particular undertaking [8].

Figure 04. Effects Intrinsic motivation on memory [9].

References

8. Oudeyer, P.-Y., and F. Kaplan, What is intrinsic motivation? A typology of computational approaches. 2007. 1.

9. Duan, H., et al., The effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on memory formation: insight from behavioral and imaging study. Brain Structure and Function, 2020. 225(5): p. 1561-1574.

(06). 00:45:43 Competitive Environments; Curiosity & Growth

The potential negative effects of competition in many contexts on individuals' psychological well-being arise from the tendency to engage in frequent comparisons with others, resulting in ambiguity about one's relative level of success. The presence of an underwhelming performance has the capacity to contribute to the overall pressure encountered. However, Dr. Maya presents the idea of re-establishing a robust connection with our own passions, taking inspiration from Rick Rubin's philosophy of uncovering the root of our individual sources of drive. Through the act of participating in this particular technique, individuals establish a cognitive boundary that effectively separates them from external disturbances. Consequently, this leads to heightened cognitive acuity and greater focus, thereby facilitating improved attention levels during their routine activities. The current study highlights the importance of entrepreneurial curiosity in promoting innovation and facilitating the expansion of firms. Entrepreneurs are recommended to embrace a mindset characterized by curiosity and a willingness to undertake calculated risks as a means to attain heightened degrees of success. Policymakers possess the capability to further this goal by fostering educational efforts, offering training opportunities, and creating an environment that fosters a culture of embracing risks. According to a study, it has been suggested that there is a stronger impact of entrepreneurial curiosity on innovativeness among younger entrepreneurs who have a higher level of experience, especially those who are in the initial stages of creating their firms. The research provides intriguing perspectives; yet, it is crucial to recognize that the conclusions are based on a restricted sample size of individuals involved in entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, further investigation is required to validate the results. Nevertheless, it is crucial for individuals desiring to become entrepreneurs to fully grasp the importance of entrepreneurial curiosity within the framework of organizational expansion [10].

Figure 05. Induction of Curiosity Elicits Parietal and Frontal Activity [11].

References

10. Peljko, Ž. and J. Auer Antončič, Entrepreneurial Curiosity, Innovativeness of the Entrepreneur, and Company Growth. Behav Sci (Basel), 2022. 12(11).

11. Lieke, L.F.v.L., et al., Induction and Relief of Curiosity Elicit Parietal and Frontal Activity. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2018. 38(10): p. 2579.

(07). 00:53:46 Re-Creating of Self

According to the analysis conducted by Dr. Maya, it can be inferred that a considerable segment of the populace encounters a state of perplexity, without necessarily experiencing a decline in their capacity to derive pleasure from various pursuits. This uncertainty may potentially be associated with emotions of grief or a pervasive sense of apathy throughout multiple domains of existence. The occurrence of loss and sadness is evident across a diverse spectrum of individuals in the human populace. In such circumstances, individuals frequently experience a significant disruption when the elements that infuse their lives with significance and energy reach a finale. A recent empirical study has provided evidence that lends support to the notion that engagement in disability sports might have a beneficial influence on an individual's self-concept. The significance of utilizing autoethnography as a research method to comprehend the living experiences of athletes with disabilities has been firmly established. The findings of these studies have important consequences for researchers and practitioners in the relevant subject. Autoethnography is a research methodology that presents potential benefits in understanding the life experiences of athletes with impairments, hence highlighting the potential of disability sports in enhancing their physical and emotional well-being. This underscores the significance of disability sports as a means of fostering physical well-being and improving the overall quality of life for individuals with impairments [12].

Figure 06. Re-Creating of Self [13].

References

12. Lumsdaine, G. and R. Lord, (Re) Creating a healthy self in and through disability sport: autoethnographic chaos and quest stories from a sportswoman with cerebral palsy. Disability & Society, 2021: p. 1-20.

13. Can a ‘Fingerprint’ of Your Brain Help Predict Disorders?; Available from: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/can-a-fingerprint-of-your-brain-help-predict-mental-health-conditions-180981869/.

(08). 01:00:51 Pop-Science, Science Accessibility

The scientific community often demonstrates a perceived sense of superiority and tends to overlook the importance of popular science publications. However, it is essential to recognize that these literary works play a vital role in the education and engagement of individuals from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds. The scientific discipline possesses the capacity to evoke a sense of inquisitiveness and exhilaration, particularly among persons in the initial phases of cognitive maturation. The prioritization of improving accessibility in the realm of science is crucial for fostering a more diverse range of viewpoints and elevating the caliber of research pursuits. Unfortunately, a significant portion of components within the scientific community remain unavailable to those with disabilities. For example, traditional wet laboratories frequently may not possess the requisite facilities to accommodate those with physical disabilities. Neurodivergent individuals encounter many difficulties, however, organizations can offer support by implementing accommodations such as the utilization of Sunflower lanyards or JAM cards. Science communication confronts challenges when it comes to the choosing of colors and typefaces, as these choices might affect the readability of content for individuals with color blindness and dyslexia. The advancement of accessibility requires the development of consciousness and the implementation of educational programs within organizational contexts. By embracing an inclusive approach to accessibility, the scientific community can benefit from a wider range of perspectives, ultimately improving the overall quality of scientific research [14].

References

14. Accessibility in Science: How Can We Make Science More Accessible? Available from: https://bitesizebio.com/65863/accessibility-in-science/.

(09). 01:06:32 Passions & Curiosity

In the context of scientific investigation, the phenomena of curiosity present itself as an intriguing enigma, necessitating a thorough and unbiased methodology in order to achieve a deeper understanding of its biological and brain foundations. By refraining from rigidly adhering to predetermined categories and adopting a more comprehensive portrayal, we can delve into the concept of curiosity in non-human species, establish connections with other cognitive phenomena, and employ innovative approaches to investigate its cognitive neuroscience. As societal progress continues, there is a growing tendency to explore the fundamental attributes of curiosity, including its intrinsic nature, its significance in the domains of education and decision-making, and its potential associations with various psychiatric conditions. Through these study endeavors, scientists strive to attain a deeper understanding of the extensive complexity inherent in this essential characteristic of the human species [15].

Figure 07. Brain activity in curiosity trials [16].

References

15. Kidd, C. and B.Y. Hayden, The Psychology and Neuroscience of Curiosity. Neuron, 2015. 88(3): p. 449-60.

16. Kang, M., et al., The Hunger for Knowledge: Neural Correlates of Curiosity. 2023.

(09). 01:13:20 Change, Cognitive Closure, End-of-History Illusion

There are multiple factors that contribute to the inclination of individuals to experience feelings of apprehension in relation to change, with one notable feature being the introduction of uncertainty, which resonates with many. There exists a prevalent inclination among individuals to exhibit a pronounced aversion towards uncertainty, leading to their recurrent involvement in irrational behaviors as a strategy to evade it. When individuals attempt to understand a future change, they often engage in the cognitive process of envisioning how their current selves will respond to that alteration, akin to the act of introspectively reflecting in a metaphorical mirror. It is important to note that the human brain has been observed to have increased dopamine production in response to situations characterized by ambiguity. Despite the considerable body of research conducted on the impacts of stress, there remains a restricted understanding of the precise factors that directly trigger stress. In a recent empirical investigation, scholars have discovered a significant correlation between subjective assessments of uncertainty and the manifestation of both subjective and physiological stress reactions. During the course of the trial, the participants were subjected to a task that involved acquiring knowledge about a probabilistic association between visual stimuli and the administration of electric shocks. The salivary cortisol readings served as confirmation that the stressor elicited alterations in the endocrine system. The researchers employed a hierarchical Bayesian learning model to assess the correlation between various manifestations of perceived task ambiguity and acute stress responses. The researchers have discovered a noteworthy correlation between subjective stress, pupil diameter, and skin conductance, and the fluctuations in irreducible uncertainty over the duration of the experiment. The study revealed a significant association between the emotional and physical states of the individuals, as their subjective and physiological responses were shown to be consistent with the levels of uncertainty. Furthermore, it has been found that the modulation of ambiguity in both subjective and physiological stress responses significantly influences the ability to anticipate an individual's performance in a given task. The discovery cited above indicates that stress might have a positive impact on the learning process in situations characterized by uncertainty. The aforementioned findings provide useful insights into the influence of uncertainty on individuals' stress levels and the potential role of stress in facilitating learning when confronted with unknown challenges [17].

Figure 08. Cognitive mechanism of the brain [18].

References

17. de Berker, A.O., et al., Computations of uncertainty mediate acute stress responses in humans. Nature Communications, 2016. 7(1): p. 10996.

18. Zhou, K., et al., An Air Combat Decision Learning System Based on a Brain-Like Cognitive Mechanism. Cognitive Computation, 2020. 12.

(10). 01:22:29 Self-Awareness & Critical Feedback

The concept of self-awareness encompasses a realm in which the existence of imbalances in information can lead to a condition of ambiguity concerning our own sense of identity, which can be observed in two unique ways. The initial understanding of one's own identity often remains inadequate, as it is shaped by chance life events. Moreover, significant alterations that individuals undergo possess the capacity to generate unanticipated consequences on their existence. The answer to the second issue is relatively simpler, as individuals frequently neglect the practice of introspection during important life upheavals. Frequently, our focus is primarily centered on appraising job performance, unwittingly overlooking the assessment of several facets of our existence, such as interpersonal connections, overall well-being, and personal inclinations. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of the self, it is crucial to thoroughly examine the implications of these modifications on various facets of our being. However, the process of developing self-awareness is a multifaceted and labor-intensive endeavor. The development of competence requires a substantial dedication of time, practical experience, and a continuous commitment to the iterative cycle of experimentation and learning. The achievement of self-awareness empowers individuals to authentically express themselves in their relationships with the external world, making it a valuable pursuit [19].

In present-day society, the act of seeking feedback from others is sometimes regarded with a negative connotation. There is a prevailing belief that underscores the significance of valuing one's intrinsic attributes while dismissing external evaluations from others. However, considering our innate inclination towards social interaction, it is crucial to recognize the importance of the impact we have on others and to actively integrate their perspective into our own self-concept. When an individual maintains the conviction that they possess positive moral characteristics internally, but consistently engage in behaviors that result in harm to others, it is crucial to address this topic with appropriate gravity and integrate it into their self-awareness. The importance of being open to receiving feedback and understanding the impact of our actions on others is essential for personal growth and the formation of meaningful interpersonal relationships.

Figure 09. Self-awareness and brain [20].

References

19. ATTAINING SELF-AWARENESS THROUGH FEEDBACK. Available from: https://discoveryourtruenorth.org/attaining-self-awareness-through-feedback-2/.

20. The roots of human self-awareness. Available from: https://now.uiowa.edu/2012/08/roots-human-self-awareness.

(11). 01:30:48 Tools: Flexible Mindset; Reframing & Venting; Gratitude

When lacking a trusted companion, individuals can utilize a direct cognitive approach to establish emotional detachment when faced with a difficulty or when attempting to change their viewpoint on a particular situation. Approach the subject topic with an objective perspective, similar to offering advice to a casual acquaintance. This methodology promotes more objectivity and emotional detachment from the intense emotions linked to the matter, so allowing individuals to cultivate a clearer and more rational understanding of it. In times of tragedy and hardship, individuals often exhibit a natural proclivity to freely articulate their emotions and thoughts, while actively seeking solace and assistance from their social networks. However, the process of expressing one's emotions may not always result in favorable consequences, especially when we are in a condition of susceptibility. The potential hindrance of adopting a more productive technique may arise from the emotional support provided by empathetic friends. In contrast, it is recommended to seek cognitive guidance from persons in order to acquire insightful perspectives on the subject. In the present-day context, the practice of seeking feedback from individuals is sometimes subject to negative appraisal, indicating a focus on self-centeredness and a disregard for the impact we have on others. However, as human beings who possess an innate inclination towards social interaction, the way in which we present ourselves to others carries importance. It is imperative that we fully accept the feedback we receive from others in order to improve our self-perception. The examination and acknowledgment of an individual's self-perception as morally upright, despite their consistent harm towards others, is a topic of considerable importance that merits attention in the context of personal growth and the establishment of more positive interpersonal relationships [21].

Figure 10. Flexible vs Fixed mindset [22].

References

21. Tao, W., et al., The Influence of Growth Mindset on the Mental Health and Life Events of College Students. 2022. 13.

22. Want Growth? Only Praise for Hard Work. Available from: https://www.samyoung.co.nz/2015/11/want-growth-only-praise-for-hard-work.html.

(12). 01:40:13 Tool: Framing Goals

Motivation can be categorized into three interconnected sub-processes: the commencement of motivation, the maintenance of motivation, and the regulation of motivation. The sub-processes outlined above are impacted by neuroscientific investigations that analyze the mechanisms of reward, learning, value assessment, decision-making, and cognitive control. The current investigation presents a neuroscientific framework that proposes three interrelated components as essential elements of motivational processes: reward-driven approach, value-based decision-making, and goal-directed control. The aforementioned components are separate entities that function in a cohesive and continuous manner. The first sub-process, referred to as the reward-driven approach, involves the production of motivation by anticipating prospective rewards and engaging in selective approach actions. The ventral striatum, a region of the brain that has been linked to the processing of rewards, plays a crucial role in the formation of fundamental connections between stimuli and behaviors. The aforementioned strategy functions as an internal motivational mechanism that requires a decreased amount of conscious attention. The second sub-process, referred to as value-based decision-making, functions to sustain motivation by evaluating multiple potential outcomes of actions, extracting insights from instances where predictions of positive outcomes proved to be inaccurate, and consistently appraising the value linked to different alternatives. The striatum and orbitofrontal cortex, specifically the valuation area, play a crucial role in this specific aspect of motivation. The third sub-process, referred to as goal-directed control, operates to regulate motivation by utilizing cognitive control processes to achieve predetermined objectives. This phenomenon comprises higher-level cognitive processes, which encompass a range of talents including strategic planning, goal maintenance, performance monitoring, and action regulation. The brain networks implicated in the control of motivation encompass the anterior cingulate cortex, which is linked to attentional mechanisms, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is engaged in cognitive regulatory processes. The three sub-processes outlined above demonstrate interconnections, in which signals of reward prediction error are sent across the dopaminergic system, notably from the striatum to the prefrontal cortex. This research paper introduces a neuroscientific framework that holds considerable significance for the field of education, namely in its ability to shed light on the underlying mechanisms involved in the development, persistence, and control of the motivation to learn in an educational environment [23].

References

23. Kim, S.I., Neuroscientific model of motivational process. Front Psychol, 2013. 4: p. 98.

(13). 01:47:13 Tool: Agency in Goal Pursuit

The engagement of coaches, trainers, mentors, and supervisors is advantageous for several individuals as they offer crucial assistance, encouragement, and support in the pursuit of our objectives. Nevertheless, the imposition of goals by external groups possesses the capacity to compromise a fundamental driver - the sense of autonomy and individual agency in shaping our own existence. Humans have a prominent inclination to prioritize their perception of personal control, as evidenced by compelling empirical studies indicating that individuals frequently exhibit a bias towards employing their own decision-making abilities rather than depending on algorithms, even when they possess knowledge of algorithms' better efficacy. Enabling individuals to establish their own objectives and use their decision-making abilities yields favorable outcomes for their motivation and feeling of agency, particularly inside the workplace, where the cultivation of certain skills is prioritized. Motivation serves as the primary catalyst that motivates individuals towards the pursuit of their objectives and aspirations, particularly when confronted with obstacles and adversities. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter widely known as the "happy hormone," serves a vital role in the regulation of motivation. The production of the neurotransmitter takes place within the central nervous system and exerts influence over a range of emotional and physiological functions, encompassing memory, reward, cognitive attention, emotional mood, cognitive learning, and sleep regulation, among others. Dopamine is a pivotal factor in the stimulation of the brain's reward system, facilitating the assimilation of information related to both enjoyable and distressing experiences. The process of acquiring knowledge has a subsequent impact on our cognitive processes related to decision-making, leading us to actively seek out experiences that generate happiness while simultaneously avoiding those that generate unhappiness. Comprehending the fundamental mechanisms implicated in the augmentation of dopamine levels and harnessing the influence of our physiological state, environmental factors, and prior experiences can facilitate the enhancement of motivation and productivity, finally culminating in the attainment of goals at a higher level [24].

Figure 11. Goal Pursuit process in the brain [25].

References

24. How motivation works in the brain: Exploring the science. Available from: https://www.betterup.com/blog/how-motivation-works-in-the-brain.

25. Berkman, E.T., E.B. Falk, and M.D. Lieberman, Interactive Effects of Three Core Goal Pursuit Processes on Brain Control Systems: Goal Maintenance, Performance Monitoring, and Response Inhibition. PLOS ONE, 2012. 7(6): p. e40334.

(14). 01:52:25 Tool: Like-Minded People & Goal Pursuit; Challenging Beliefs

The impact of individuals who hold compatible attitudes and beliefs can have a substantial influence on our motivation levels and our efforts to achieve our objectives. The practice of seeing persons who possess shared beliefs and a collective dedication to accomplishing a certain target has the capacity to enhance our determination and assurance of the feasibility of our own goals. Observing individuals facing obstacles and occasional setbacks in close proximity has the impact of humanizing the process of striving towards objectives, therefore fostering a perception of attainability and authenticity. The cultivation of a sense of camaraderie and openness fosters an atmosphere that is conducive to embracing failure as a meaningful stepping stone on the path to achievement. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge the potential limitations of associating oneself exclusively with persons who possess comparable perspectives. The presence of uniformity possesses the capacity to impede the progression of imaginative ideas and restrict the capacity for original thinking. The spread of genuine creativity stems from the convergence of varied viewpoints, interests, and backgrounds, resulting in the birth of innovative ideas and pursuits. Moreover, the presence of groupthink poses a potential hazard in such circumstances, since the emphasis on reaching consensus may expedite the decision-making process but does not necessarily guarantee the most advantageous results. In order to cultivate resilience and facilitate individual development, it is imperative to maintain a disposition of receptiveness towards a diverse array of perspectives and actively participate in constructive conversations that foster the critical assessment of one another's concepts. The act of embracing a wide range of ideas enables individuals to actively participate in introspection and broaden their cognitive horizons. This technique serves as a safeguard against the development of narrow and restricted leadership tendencies [26].

Figure 12. Hierarchical Brain Networks Active Goal Pursuit [27].

References

26. Why Being With Like-Minded People Is Dangerous. Available from: https://maybusch.com/why-being-with-like-minded-people-is-dangerous/.

27. Spielberg, J., W. Heller, and G. Miller, Hierarchical Brain Networks Active in Approach and Avoidance Goal Pursuit. 2013. 7.

(15). 02:01:27 Cultivating Open-Mindedness & Empathy

Open-mindedness, a concept frequently linked to the ideas of tolerance and non-prejudice, encompasses a broader spectrum of psychological attributes. The process entails a disposition to incorporate a wide range of perspectives and novel experiences, thereby cultivating the capacity for critical and analytical reasoning. Individuals characterized by an open-minded disposition demonstrate a considerable commitment to their own convictions, while concurrently exhibiting a willingness to engage in contemplation and comprehension of diverse viewpoints. The individuals demonstrate a proactive approach in their pursuit of knowledge by actively searching out resources that have the potential to question their existing beliefs. The inclination to reassess antiquated notions facilitates personal progress and optimizes the continuous pursuit of information. In contrast, closed-mindedness can be viewed as the antithesis of open-mindedness, as it entails a reluctance to entertain alternate perspectives and a steadfast commitment to one's own beliefs. Individuals exhibiting closed-mindedness may exhibit a deficiency in their ability to empathize with divergent ideas. The cultivation of an open-minded attitude necessitates individuals to exhibit empathy towards others, especially when confronted with contrasting perspectives, and to actively seek comprehension of the various causes that lead to varying beliefs. Individuals that possess an open-minded disposition demonstrate traits such as inquisitiveness, modesty, and a sincere inclination to engage in active communication with others while acknowledging and valuing their entitlement to articulate their viewpoints and concepts. The level of open-mindedness demonstrated by individuals can be influenced by various things, including their innate characteristics. One notable attribute is the degree of receptiveness to new experiences, as delineated by the five-factor model of human psychology. Moreover, the perception of knowledge might also have an impact on an individual's inclination to entertain alternate perspectives, thereby hindering their capacity for open-mindedness. The cultivation of an open and receptive attitude holds considerable importance; as scientific evidence indicates that the receipt of inaccurate feedback regarding one's performance can significantly impact an individual's inclination to entertain alternate viewpoints. The cultivation of open-mindedness in individuals holds the capacity to facilitate enhanced comprehension, heightened efficacy in interpersonal interactions, and the promotion of constructive discourse across diverse domains of human existence [28].

Furthermore, subsequent studies have produced empirical data that supports the association between changes in prefrontal activation in response to enjoyable stimuli and the manifestation of empathetic emotions. There exists a notable association between empathetic enjoyment and empathic cheerfulness, along with dorsolateral EEG asymmetry. In contrast, previous research has established a connection between frontopolar EEG asymmetry and low-intensity enjoyment, empathic concern, and empathic cheerfulness. These regions have the potential to significantly influence our ability to understand and connect with our own emotional state, interpret the emotions expressed by others, and generate appropriate positive emotions, such as happiness or feelings of kindness, in response to others' emotional displays [29].

Figure 13. Empathy and brain response [30].

References

28. Kendra Cherry. How to Be Open-Minded and Why It Matters. Available from: https://www.verywellmind.com/be-more-open-minded-4690673.

29. Light, S.N., et al., Empathy is associated with dynamic change in prefrontal brain electrical activity during positive emotion in children. Child Dev, 2009. 80(4): p. 1210-31.

30. Stietz, J., et al., Dissociating Empathy From Perspective-Taking: Evidence From Intra- and Inter-Individual Differences Research. 2019. 10.

(16). 02:08:15 Building Self Narratives: Empathy, Burnout

Empathy can be classified into three primary categories. Emotional empathy, which is a kind of empathy, is characterized by a profound and intuitive understanding that is commonly observed among humans. Emotional empathy elicits a notable physiological reaction in response to the emotions encountered by humans. When an individual shares their challenging experiences, it is fairly uncommon for individuals to develop a deep emotional connection with their sentiments, resulting in the experience of true empathy and possibly evoking tears. The second categorization deals to cognitive empathy, which is sometimes referred to as empathic accuracy. This particular manifestation of empathy pertains to an individual's capacity to see and comprehend the emotional experiences of others. This process entails acquiring a comprehensive and precise understanding of an individual's emotional condition, enabling us to proficiently interpret their affective experiences and actions. Cognitive empathy is widely recognized as a capacity that humans develop through learning and experience, allowing them to perceive and understand the emotional experiences of others [31]. Compassion is a reactive emotional condition that, in conjunction with empathy or sympathy, fosters a tendency to offer assistance to others. Compassion is beyond the simple act of empathizing with another individual, as it encompasses the ability to sympathize on their behalf. In contrast to empathy, compassion elicits heightened neuronal activation in brain regions linked to dopaminergic reward and oxytocin-mediated affiliative pathways. This inclination results in the amplification of favorable emotions, even when faced with difficult circumstances. Although the precise mechanisms underlying empathy and compassion are now the subject of an ongoing investigation, enhancing our comprehension of the various manifestations of empathy can enhance our ability to comprehend and address the feelings of others with greater efficacy. This approach has the potential to enhance our ability to establish relationships and deliver support in a more efficient manner [32].

References

31. The Psychology of Emotional and Cognitive Empathy. Available from: https://lesley.edu/article/the-psychology-of-emotional-and-cognitive-empathy#:~:text=Cognitive%20empathy%2C%20also%20known%20as,%2C%E2%80%9D%20Hodges%20and%20Myers%20say.

32. Dowling, T., Compassion does not fatigue! Can Vet J, 2018. 59(7): p. 749-750.

(17). 02:13:56 Tools: Goal Setting

The formulation of objectives has a substantial impact on diverse facets of an individual's psychological well-being, encompassing motivation, self-worth, assurance, and independence. When individuals set goals, their brains undergo biological processes that support the emergence of new behaviors, leading to the establishment of strengthened neural connections. The increased synaptic connections consequently enhance the likelihood of successfully attaining the stated objectives. Empirical evidence derived from the field of neuroscience suggests that the human brain possesses the ability to exhibit neuroplasticity, a phenomenon characterized by its capability to undergo adaptive and modulatory alterations in response to a diverse range of events. As a result, the process of formulating objectives might be seen as possessing transformative characteristics. A multitude of research has generated empirical evidence that substantiates the benefits of goal-setting in many contexts. Individuals with a strong sense of motivation often regard goals as less daunting, so bolstering their capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles. The efficacy of setting ambitious goals in facilitating desired outcomes exceeds that of setting straightforward goals, as the former has the capacity to engender heightened levels of motivation. It is recommended that organizations set ambitious goals, ensuring that teams are provided with adequate resources and support to foster self-confidence and cultivate a sense of competence in achieving desired results. To incorporate goal-setting as a fundamental component of organizational culture, it is crucial for organizations to align individual goals with the overall objectives of the corporation. The purpose of incorporating targeted recognition and accountability mechanisms inside an organization is to enhance the achievement of objectives and foster a positive progression of outcomes. Consequently, this specific element serves as a catalyst for employees to augment their abilities and knowledge, thereby enabling them to provide significant value and contribute meaningfully to the overall advancement and success of the organization [33].

Figure 14. Goal setting and brain response [34].

References

33.The Neuroscience of Goal-Setting and Its Impact on Your Culture. Available from: https://culture.io/resources/the-neuroscience-of-goal-setting-and-its-impact-on-your-culture/#:~:text=Studies%20in%20neuroscience%20tell%20us,our%20neurons%20organize%20is%20impacted.

34. Melina, R.U., et al., Goal-Directed Modulation of Neural Memory Patterns: Implications for fMRI-Based Memory Detection. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2015. 35(22): p. 8531.

(18). 02:19:54 Tool: “Middle Problem”, Maintaining Motivation

The transitional phase of striving for a goal sometimes exhibits a decrease in motivation, positioned between the initial surge of enthusiasm and the eventual intensification of desire to achieve the objective, generally known as the goal gradient effect. While it may not be feasible to completely eradicate this period of decreased activity, one viable strategy to alleviate its consequences is by shortening the timeframe linked to our goals. Rather than formulating long-term annual objectives, it is advantageous to break them down into shorter, achievable milestones. This technique facilitates the maintenance of motivation during the whole duration of the undertaking. The examination of intrinsic motivation is a captivating area of research that combines the disciplines of behavioral science and neuroscience. The potential for significant insights into the impact of environmental and social factors on intrinsic motivation exists through the integration of knowledge acquired from phenomenological and behavioral investigations with neuroscience. The application of a multidisciplinary approach holds promise in understanding the affective and cognitive systems that underlie intrinsic motivation. The attempt of understanding human motivation is greatly enhanced by the pursuit of consilience, which entails integrating diverse scientific views. This approach aligns with the concepts of self-determination theory (SDT) and enables a deeper appreciation of the subject matter [35].

Figure 15. Motivation modulates brain responses [36].

References

35. Di Domenico, S.I. and R.M. Ryan, The Emerging Neuroscience of Intrinsic Motivation: A New Frontier in Self-Determination Research. 2017. 11.

36. Li, C.-W., et al., Motivational system modulates brain responses during exploratory decision-making. Scientific Reports, 2021. 11(1): p. 15810.

(19). 02:24:55 Tool: Aversion & Memory, Peak-End Rule

To alleviate the reluctance linked to recommencing the pursuit of our goals, it is beneficial to get an understanding of the cognitive processes involved in memory encoding and retrieval. When individuals engage in retrospective introspection, they often assign varying degrees of importance to different periods, with a particular focus on the climax of the event, the portion marked by heightened emotional intensity, and the resolution of the experience. According to empirical research, it has been observed that individuals prefer to retrospectively evaluate an overall unpleasant experience more positively when the duration of the event is slightly prolonged, but the final few minutes are made less uncomfortable. The cognitive bias discussed below has implications for the perception of both the duration and intensity of distress, hence emphasizing the importance of effectively managing one's memory when faced with challenging circumstances. Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) is a well-established cognitive and behavioral phenomenon observed in rodents, specifically rats and mice. It represents a prominent expression of classical conditioning, demonstrating the animals' ability to associate a specific taste with negative consequences. The procedure involves the formation of a connection between a distinct gustatory stimulus, referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the occurrence of nausea, known as the unconditioned stimulus (US). This association leads to the subsequent avoidance of liquids that carry the specific flavor associated with the CS. In comparison to alternative manifestations of classical conditioning, CTA evokes an adverse reaction despite the presence of a substantial temporal gap between the CS and the unconditioned stimulus (US). Mice have distinguishable reactions to CS and US as opposed to rats. The CTA test has various advantages, one of which is its capacity to function autonomously from motor behavior. Moreover, this undertaking has generated a substantial body of information that highlights various regions of the brain, neurotransmitters, and cellular mechanisms. Furthermore, the CTA paradigm serves as a valuable tool for phenotyping mice mutants and provides crucial insights into the neural mechanisms underlying associative learning and memory processes [37].

References

37. Welzl, H., P. D'Adamo, and H.P. Lipp, Conditioned taste aversion as a learning and memory paradigm. Behav Brain Res, 2001. 125(1-2): p. 205-13

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