Huberman Lab Podcast - “How to Overcome Procrastination"

Leverage Dopamine to Overcome Procrastination & Optimize Effort | Huberman Lab Podcast

Podcast Host: Dr. Andrew Huberman (Stanford Associate Professor - brain development, brain plasticity, and neural regeneration and repair fields)
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Overview and Purpose:

Oftentimes in conversation, podcast hosts/guests will reference a given study but aren't able to provide the entire context or citation link for listeners. To help underscore the impact of science podcasts, such as this one, we construct the posts to reference all studies discussed in their conversation as well as provide some more background/information on topics that we think the listeners may be interested in. If there are changes you'd like to see to the format of these posts, or any other feedback you'd like to provide - please let us know in the Discussion section below this post.

The following is a synopsis of what you may expect from listening to this podcast: In this segment, we are going to investigate how dopamine dynamics, which are the shifts and interactions that occur between our baseline and peak levels of dopamine, influence both our sense of motivation and the cravings that we have. Dopamine dynamics are going to be the topic of conversation as Dr. Andrew D. Huberman talks about how to overcome procrastination with their application. He will explain in full the behavioral, cognitive, nutrition-based, and supplementation-based ways to maximize baseline and peak dopamine levels in order to ensure a persistently motivated state. This can be accomplished by maximizing baseline and peak dopamine levels. His explanation will cover behavioral, cognitive, nutritional, and supplementation-based methods. Behavioral tools include things like meditation and yoga. Also, he covers how to enhance your motivation when you feel yourself becoming bored, why you might not want to stack activities or substances that promote dopamine, and how to develop and maintain a "growth mindset" for the purpose of pursuing any kind of goals. Listeners who get an understanding of the dynamics of dopamine should find themselves in a better position to combat procrastination, keep themselves motivated, and boost their confidence. Dopamine is a neuromodulator that is connected with basic activities (such as hunger, romantic attraction, and other similar phenomena) as well as feats of cognitive and physical performance. Dopamine is a very powerful neuromodulator.

Note: In the ethos of Open Science and transparent publication, this is a living document which will undergo continuous improvement. If you have suggestions, expansions, or corrections please feel free to comment in this thread and we will adjust the document as well as award some RSC for your help.

Discussion and Publications by Section

(1) 00:00:00 Dopamine 

Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that is present in many different creatures, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. By activating the five unique dopamine receptor types (D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5) and their variants, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Dopamine is produced in only a few areas of the brain, including the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Dopamine is another neurohormone released by the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary lobe's ability to release prolactin is its main hormonal function. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that the brain employs for a range of functions, including critical roles in behavior and cognition, motor activity, motivation, and reward as well as the regulation of prolactin production, which is important for lactation, sleep, mood, attention, and learning. Dopaminergic neurons, or neurons whose principal neurotransmitter is dopamine, are mostly found in the substantia nigra pars compacta, the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain, and the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus [1].

Dopamine regulates learning and motivation. How can target cells tell if higher dopamine means learning or moving? Slow ('tonic') dopamine shifts are thought to motivate, while quick ('phasic') ones reflect reward prediction errors for learning. Recent investigations have shown that dopamine motivates movement on sub-second timeframes. A study presents an alternate dopamine-regulated behavior model. Dopamine terminal receptors instantaneously and locally shape motivation-related dopamine release without cell firing. Striatal cholinergic interneurons may switch target neurons between learning and performance modes abruptly. Dopamine's behavioral effects vary per subregion, but it always estimates whether it's worth wasting a limited internal resource like energy, attention, or time [2].

Figure 1. Dopamine is a Neurotransmitter Released from Vesicles [3].

References:

1.            DOPAMINE NEWS AND RESEARCH. Available from: https://www.news-medical.net/?tag=/Dopamine.

2.            Berke, J.D., What does dopamine mean? Nat Neurosci, 2018. 21(6): p. 787-793.

3.            Konkel, L. What Is Dopamine? 2022; Available from: https://www.everydayhealth.com/dopamine/.

(2) 00:06:27 Dopamine Brain Circuits

Dopamine cis a neurotransmitter that changes the electrical activity of neurons. Neurons are present in the brain and spinal cord; these nerve cells connect different areas of the body. Neurons had some types, the sensory neurons connect the nervous system with our sensory organs, like our gut, which senses the nutrients we eat and then sends neural signals to our brain, this electrical signal is modulated by dopamine. Dopamine a neurotransmitter either decrease or increase the electrochemical activity of other neurons.

There are basically five circuits in the brain that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter, also we will discuss their functions:

Nigro striatal Pathway:

The Nigrostriatal pathway links the midbrain's substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) to the dorsal striatum [4] as shown in Figure “01”. While figure “02” shows Nigrostriatal Pathway.

Figure 2. Shows Substantia Nigra, A region in the brain that releases dopamine in the striatum [4]

Figure 3. The nigrostriatal pathway modulates corticostriatal transmission [5]

Mesolimbic Pathway:

The mesolimbic pathway is made up of dopaminergic neurons from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) that project to the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus [6].  Also, the mesolimbic dopaminergic (ML-DA) pathway is essential to motivated behavior, reward, and, and cognition [7].

Mesocortical Pathway:

It projects from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the limbic regions (ventral striatum, hippocampus, and amygdala) and cerebral cortex (frontal, cingulate, and entorhinal cortex) [8].  This pathway regulates crucial decisions about what to do and what not to do in life. It is also thought to have a role in motivation, emotional response, verbal memory, and cognitive control [9].

Tuberoinfundibular pathway:

The hypothalamus governs hypophyseal activity via the tuberoinfundibular route. Smaller dopaminergic cell groups have been found in the olfactory bulb, retina, thalamus, and vagus nerve dorsal motor nucleus [9]. Dopamine is transmitted from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular route.

Figure 4. All four Dopaminergic pathways [10].

Circuit Within Retina:

On the back of the eye, which is a portion of the brain that protruded from the brain during the embryonic growth stage and is actually a part of the nervous system, is a pie-crust-like coating of neural tissue. The neural retina's ability to sense light is mediated by dopamine.

References:

4. Sonne J, R.V., Beato MR, Neuroanatomy, Substantia Nigra. StatPearls, 2022.

5. Iannielli, A., et al., Reconstitution of the Human Nigro-striatal Pathway on-a-Chip Reveals OPA1-Dependent Mitochondrial Defects and Loss of Dopaminergic Synapses. Cell Reports, 2019. 29(13): p. 4646-4656.e4.

6. Cox, O.H. and R.S. Lee, Chapter 8 - Behavioral Medical Epigenetics, in Medical Epigenetics, T.O. Tollefsbol, Editor. 2016, Academic Press: Boston. p. 127-146.

7. Alcaro, A., R. Huber, and J. Panksepp, Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: an affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Res Rev, 2007. 56(2): p. 283-321.

8. B.N. Gangadhar, N.P.R., Brain Mapping. 2015.

9. Hirano, S., Clinical implications for dopaminergic and functional neuroimage research in cognitive symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Molecular Medicine, 2021. 27(1): p. 40.

10. Kant, R., M.K. Meena, and M.J.I.J.o.A.i.M. Pathania, Dopamine: a modulator of circadian rhythms/biological clock. 2021. 8(2): p. 316.

(3) 00:14:53 Goals & Addiction 

To further comprehend the significance of this circuit in motivation, procrastination, goal setting, and pursuit, we shall explain the mesocortical pathway in-depth, as well as its connection to dopamine. There was no specific objective or pursuit that the mesocortical circuit or dopamine was involved in. To pursue anything, the Mesocortical Pathway is a circuit that requires dopamine. 

Addiction:

A progressive reduction in the variety of activities that give us pleasure characterizes addiction. Addiction can be seen as a three-stage process that includes intoxication, unpleasant emotions, and anticipation. It also involves neuroplastic alterations in the reward, stress, and executive function systems of the brain, which deteriorate over time [11]. The effects of drug addiction are depicted in figure 08. Dopamine is produced by nerve cells in the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA). These nerve cells then send their projection, which is known as an axon, to the prefrontal cortex, where it is then released [12].

Figure 5. Disruptions of interconnecting circuits cause compulsive-like drug addiction behaviors [11].

References

11. Koob, G.F. and N.D. Volkow, Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 2016. 3(8): p. 760-773.

12. Juárez Olguín, H., et al., The Role of Dopamine and Its Dysfunction as a Consequence of Oxidative Stress. Oxid Med Cell Longev, 2016. 2016: p. 9730467.

(4) 00:17:13 Dopamine Dynamics, “Wave Pool” analogy 

Dopamine:

Dopamine release in the frontal brain causes dopamine peak levels, which can either enhance or decrease an action. Troughs in dopamine refer to the peak that falls below the baseline, whereas spikes in dopamine refer to an increase or decrease in dopamine. These dopamine peaks can be brought on by substances like drugs, chemicals, food, and other behaviors. The dopamine reservoir is referred to as the dopamine baseline, which describes the dopamine concentration. The dopamine pool is also used to create dopamine peaks [13].

Wave Pool Analogy:

According to Dr. Kyle Gillette's analogy, there are waves in wave pools with various heights, some of which may be small ripples or mini peaks. However, there may also be big waves in the pool; if their height and frequency are particularly high, some of the pool waters may, water being used as an analogy for dopamine, cause these large waves to slash out of the wave pool, which causes baseline drops. The baseline, which is the pool's water level, will remain constant if these peaks are tiny, making them a good model for how dopamine functions.

References

13. Zakiniaeiz, Y., et al., Sex differences in amphetamine-induced dopamine release in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of tobacco smokers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2019. 44(13): p. 2205-2211.

(5) 00:20:28 Craving, Motivation, Pursuit & Reward Prediction Error 

Dopamine is not released when someone achieves a reward; rather, it is released in expectation of a reward. An increase in dopamine is caused by our desire for something, which may be anything. But as soon as someone realizes their want, the peak level of dopamine falls below the baseline. Dopamine levels falling below the baseline set off our craving for rewards. This dropping is crucial to the procedure [14].

Example: When someone craves wine, their levels of dopamine rise, but they quickly fall below the baseline. In this case, the person will search for wine, going from place to place to find it. If he drinks it and enjoys the flavor, he will start comparing the wine he actually found to the wine he wanted to drink, which will help him satisfy his wine craving and raise his level of dopamine. A significant surge in dopamine will occur if the person enjoys the aftertaste of the wine.

Reward Prediction Error:

Dopamine that is experienced and released from the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is going to be of a certain value, and that value is going to be compared to the desire and expectation of what a person thought when he was going to get, so if someone takes what he actually got minus what he expected, that is reward prediction error. When someone is craving a reward, their dopamine levels rise and make them driven. Yet, when their dopamine levels return to normal, they become even more eager to achieve the reward [15].

References:

14. Cools, R., et al., Dopamine and the motivation of cognitive control. Handb Clin Neurol, 2019. 163: p. 123-143.

15. Schultz, W., Dopamine reward prediction error coding. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 2016. 18(1): p. 23-32.

(6) 00:29:40 Feedback Cues & Reward Contingent Learning, “Scoreboard” 

Feedback signals serve as a "scoreboard" that enables individuals to monitor their development and modify their actions in response to the information they receive.

The peaks and troughs and baseline associated with craving look like a peak followed by a trough, followed by returning to baseline and maybe another peak if someone gets a reward, or a drop below baseline if someone doesn't like what he got, but if we look at peak and reward and start thinking about this process in depth, that is, the neurons in VTA and nucleus accumbens and how it relates to the frontal cortex, we discover nothing short of amazing. We find that whenever we want to pursue something, we are always looking for cues as to whether we are on the right path to achieve that goal and setting a mindset or context within our brains as to whether we are confident or pessimistic about achieving that thing. This is vitally important for anyone who struggles to get motivated and stay motivated. It's crucial for anyone interested in physiology. Why only some people are motivated? Why do some people need perfect conditions to succeed while others seem to succeed without them? Some of us are very good at achieving our goals in one context but not so much in another, so here we had to understand the fact that the cue that we are going to likely get what we want so for instance if someone opens his book start preparing for exam, that cue increases someone's dopamine level, subconsciously there is already a signal that is initiated by that dopamine that yeah you right, then dopamine starts to go down below When a person obtains highest grades or achieves that objective, dopamine peaks at different levels depending on how pleasurable the reward is. There is also some time delay between the queue and the reward. This gap is going to be different for different [16].

Reward Contingent Learning:

In fact, there are specialized circuits from the VTA and nucleus accumbens that are involved in learning how we achieve or do not achieve specific types of rewards; this process is known as reward contingent learning because it involves learning the contingencies of what led up to a reward or what did not lead up to a reward. The dopamine system is very good at subconsciously parsing what are the things that happen between wanting and getting. Dopamine is always being released in the background, and although though it has nothing to do with learning, this continuous release of dopamine serves as a sort of propeller, pushing us in the direction of whatever it is that we are attempting to pursue [17].

References:

16. Wäschle, K., et al., Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 2014. 29: p. 103-114.

17. Park, J., et al., Learning to be better at the game: Performance vs. completion contingent reward for game-based learning. Computers & Education, 2019. 139: p. 1-15.

(7) 00:37:40 Addiction; Pleasure & Pain Imbalance 

The definition of addiction includes engaging in a behavior to produce appetizing results, preoccupying oneself with a behavior, finding temporary satisfaction, losing control, and experiencing negative repercussions [18]. According to statistical analysis, women's alcohol intake has increased by 8080% over the past 30 years. Having a drink Alcoholism develops when you consume more than two drinks every day. Methamphetamine and cocaine are only a couple of the other chemicals that can lead to addiction. Sometimes behavioral addictions, often referred to as process addictions, include things like sex addiction, porn addiction, and masturbation addiction. These psychological dependencies use the dopamine system.

Dopamine plays a role in addiction; if we consider cocaine addiction, it involves a dramatic increase in dopamine very quickly. Therefore, if someone craves cocaine, they are actually craving that dopamine peak, the increased level of alertness, and other things connected to the feeling of being under the influence of the drug. However, the stimulus for this craving simply becomes that line of cocaine; when they inject cocaine, the dopamine level rises up to a peak almost immediately. So, there isn't really any additional circumstance that the mesocortical system needs to learn during the relatively brief interval between stimulus and dopamine. The system is learning what? It discovers that cocaine equals huge amounts of dopamine equals joyful and energizing feelings, etc. And by doing that, the entire circuit is strengthened, making the system's need for a hyper-short contingency clear. Because cocaine causes us to experience the most dopamine release of any activity, our bodies then begin to get dependent on that habit [19].

Cocaine induces an increase in dopamine that causes a large peak, a fast drop below baseline, and a much longer time to return to the original baseline than it did before consuming the drug. Even worse, as more cocaine is used, the dopamine peaks that are produced lead to steadily smaller peaks and deeper troughs below baseline, which causes the entire system to switch from pleasure to pain and the need to seek out drugs [20].

                  Figure 6. Cocaine in the brain: dopamine is released by a neuron into the synapse [20].

References

18. Sussman, S. and A.N. Sussman, Considering the definition of addiction. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2011. 8(10): p. 4025-38.

19. Volkow, N.D., et al., Imaging dopamine's role in drug abuse and addiction. Neuropharmacology, 2009. 56 Suppl 1(Suppl 1): p. 3-8.

20. How does cocaine produce its effects? 2020 11 Jun. 2020; Available from:  http://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/cocaine/how-does-cocaine-produce-its-effects.

(8) 00:44:55 Dopamine Release & Addictive Substances/Behaviors 
Dopamine release:

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) or nucleus accumbens neurons are found to release dopamine at a baseline rate of 3 to 4 per second in both animal and human studies. This is the dopamine release rate at rest for a person who is not taking any drugs. Dopamine from that system is constantly visible in our forebrain. This occurs when you decide to consume some food, if you were already hungry before eating, so if you are then anticipating food and you are hungry, it would double. It increases by two when you are hungry, and then, depending on how much you love the food, it may increase by multiple or even decrease from what it was when you were hungry. Thus, this level doubles while people are eating and craving food [21].

Figure 7. Control over the striatal dopamine axon terminals releases [22].

Addictive Substances/Behaviors:

Dopamine neuron firing in addicts of nicotine, whether they smoke, vape, snuff, or dip, increases by roughly 150%, whereas cocaine causes a 10000% increase in dopamine output into the prefrontal brain. And depending on the drug's potency, methamphetamine will result in a 1000–2000% spike in dopamine levels.

Figure 8. Nicotine releases dopamine inside the brain after smoking [23].

Sex, video games, and motivated behavior: Some people enjoy playing video games a lot. When they do, their nucleus accumbens release five times as much dopamine, and in certain games even ten times as much dopamine. However, for some people, playing video games has little effect on their dopamine levels [24].

The normal range stated in the literature is a four- to five-fold increase in the rate of dopamine neuron activation when it comes to sex. Some people will receive this number in double the amount. Caffeine not only triggers the production of dopamine but also has the power to enhance the number of dopamine receptors. After use, heroin also significantly and quickly raises dopamine levels. The fact that dopamine is the only molecule responsible for craving, pursuit, and experience with these substances and behaviors, and learning about all of those cravings and pursuits is what determines whether or not we will use that substance again is also fascinating [25]. 

Figure 9. Caffeine Induces Dopamine in Nucleus Accumbens [26].

References

21. Liu, C. and P.S. Kaeser, Mechanisms and regulation of dopamine release. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 2019. 57: p. 46-53.

22. Zachry, J.E., et al., Sex differences in dopamine release regulation in the striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2021. 46(3): p. 491-499.

23. Ruzilawati, A.B., et al., Smoking Genes: A Case–Control Study of Dopamine Transporter Gene (SLC6A3) and Dopamine Receptor Genes (DRD1, DRD2 and DRD3) Polymorphisms and Smoking Behaviour in a Malay Male Cohort. 2020. 10(12): p. 1633.

24. Bostwick, J.M. and J.A. Bucci, Internet sex addiction treated with naltrexone. Mayo Clin Proc, 2008. 83(2): p. 226-30.

25. Volkow, N.D., et al., Caffeine increases striatal dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability in the human brain. Transl Psychiatry, 2015. 5(4): p. e549.

26. Solinas, M., et al., Caffeine Induces Dopamine and Glutamate Release in the Shell of the Nucleus Accumbens. 2002. 22(15): p. 6321-6324.

(9) 00:50:43 Addiction Recovery, Binding Behaviors 

Addiction Recovery:

The most crucial aspect of addiction treatment, which frequently entails depending on the addiction, is the reset of all the dopamine circuitry from unhealthy to healthy. There are some addictions, like severe alcoholism and in some cases opiate addiction, where immediate and sustained abstinence cannot be used as a tool. Instead, someone needs to work with an addiction specialist, and sometimes there needs to be a tapering off of substances. 30 days of complete abstinence inevitably involves a lot of pain, craving, anxiety, insomnia, and discomfort, among other things. This relates to the big trough in dopamine that inevitably occurs. There are also other addictions, particularly those to food and sex, where the goal isn't necessarily to entirely stop the behavior but rather to put some restrictions on it so that it doesn't interfere with other enjoyable activities in life [27].

Figure 10. Addiction Recovery [28].

Binding Behaviors:

Sex, pornography, and video game addictions are examples of behaviors where people are bound to a certain substance use or behavioral addiction in time and space. This implies that they only engage in these behaviors when the circumstances are right. Individuals are using the particular circuitry in the prefrontal brain that was stated earlier. Hence, in the case of binding behavior, the prefrontal cortex is effectively being trained to comprehend that certain things, like foods or sex, are appropriate if they are involved in these activities [29].

References

27. Volkow, N.D., et al., Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Molecular Psychiatry, 2004. 9(6): p. 557-569.

28. NIDA, Treatment and Recovery. 2023. Available from: http://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/treatment-recovery.

29. Creese, I., D.R. Burt, and S.H. Snyder, Dopamine receptor binding enhancement accompanies lesion-induced behavioral supersensitivity. Science, 1977. 197(4303): p. 596-8.

(10)  00:53:25 Tools: Maintain Baseline Dopamine Levels 

To achieve a healthy baseline of dopamine level, there are few fundamental behaviors to follow. Instead than requiring a purchase, these methods required some level of ongoing maintenance and effort. The amount of dopamine in your body is greatly increased or restored by getting enough sleep each night. This maintains a healthy baseline of dopamine that will enable you to even consider your goals in any type of meaningful or logical way [30, 31].

The reason you lie there and perform a body scan and some long exhale breathing is because non-sleep deep breathing, is similar to but different from what is occasionally referred to as Yoga Nidra. These breathing techniques have been shown to increase the amount of dopamine in your dopamine reserves by up to 65%, which is an amazing figure. As a result, getting enough sleep and practicing yoga are three very effective techniques to maintain a healthy baseline amount of dopamine [32]. Also, because tyrosine, an amino acid, is the rate-limiting enzyme for the production of dopamine, diet is crucial for maintaining a healthy baseline level of dopamine. Many foods have various amounts of tyrosine. Some meats, nuts, and parmesan cheese all contain significant levels of tyrosine [33].

Without sunglasses, five to ten minutes of sunlight in the morning, or at least 10 to 20 minutes on cloudy days, and at least 30 minutes on very overcast days, increases the hormone cortisol, which our bodies need in the morning when it is higher and declines later in the day to increase dopamine levels [34].

References 

30. Lim, M.M., et al., Sleep deprivation differentially affects dopamine receptor subtypes in mouse striatum. Neuroreport, 2011. 22(10): p. 489-93.

31. Volkow, N.D., et al., Sleep Deprivation Decreases Binding of [¹¹C]Raclopride to Dopamine D₂/D₃ Receptors in the Human Brain. 2008. 28(34): p. 8454-8461.

32. Krishnakumar, D., M.R. Hamblin, and S. Lakshmanan, Meditation and Yoga can Modulate Brain Mechanisms that affect Behavior and Anxiety-A Modern Scientific Perspective. Anc Sci, 2015. 2(1): p. 13-19.

33. Bloemendaal, M., et al., Neuro-Cognitive Effects of Acute Tyrosine Administration on Reactive and Proactive Response Inhibition in Healthy Older Adults. eNeuro, 2018. 5(2).

34. Cawley, E.I., et al., Dopamine and light: dissecting effects on mood and motivational states in women with subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 2013. 38(6): p. 388-97.

(11) 01:03:26 Tool: Deliberate Cold Exposure & Dopamine 

There are tools and techniques you can use to raise your dopamine baseline for extended periods of time. Research has shown that exposure to cold water up to the neck, which doesn't have to be extremely cold, has been shown to raise baseline levels of dopamine and other catecholamines like norepinephrine and epinephrine [35]. This increase in dopamine may be brought on by taking a cold shower. This also depends on the temperature, for example, there is evidence that suggests taking a really cold shower for just a few seconds to a few minutes can result in a long-lasting boost in your dopamine baseline [36].

Getting into warmer water—which may be 60 degrees Fahrenheit up to the neck—and remaining in it for 40 to 60 minutes is another strategy that has been validated by the research to raise the baseline of dopamine for a longer period of time. The baseline levels of dopamine are known to be greatly raised by these methods—in fact, they can be doubled or higher over extended periods of time [37].

References

35. Blouquit, M.F., D. Gripois, and J. Roffi, Influence of cold exposure on dopamine content in rat brown adipose tissue. Horm Metab Res, 1996. 28(3): p. 122-7.

36. Khaibullina, A., et al., In a Model of Batten Disease, Palmitoyl Protein Thioesterase-1 Deficiency Is Associated with Brown Adipose Tissue and Thermoregulation Abnormalities. PloS one, 2012. 7: p. e48733.

37. Srámek, P., et al., Human physiological responses to immersion into water of different temperatures. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2000. 81(5): p. 436-42.

(12) 01:09:38 Prescriptions & Supplementation: L-Tyrosine, Mucuna Pruriens 

There are substances, both prescribed and over-the-counter substances, that can elevate our baseline levels of dopamine for an hour or more. Nevertheless, this depends on the individual's rate of dopamine metabolization as well as the way they handle and tolerate different dosages of various medications. Ritalin, Adderall, Modafinil, and arm modafinil are just a few of the legally prescribed medications that increase dopamine. For many hours, each of these substances considerably raises the dopamine baseline. Certain amino acids, including L-Tyrosine, a rate-limiting enzyme for dopamine, can raise levels of the neurotransmitter.

Mucuna purine, which is quite similar to L-Dopa and is frequently employed in the treatment of Parkinson's, is another substance that raises the baseline level of dopamine in the tuberoinfundibular pathway. Mucuna purine really originates from a specific bean's soft outside layer. Actually, it is 99% L-Dopa. Moreover, it raises libido or sex, mood alertness, motivation, etc [38].

Little doses of L-tyrosine have been demonstrated in scientific studies to enhance the amount of dopamine that is available and circulates in our bodies, which improves cognitive abilities. The literature claims that L-tyrosine improves working memory, particularly when several tasks and competing goals are present. Another study demonstrates that L-Tyrosine can assist humans in multitasking, particularly in working memory under stressful circumstances. It also demonstrates that higher levels of dopamine can aid in multitasking. However, the fact that these studies used a high dosage of L-Tyrosine makes them weak. Per kilogram of body weight, they utilized 100kg of L-Tyrosine. Before cognitive tests, taking 1500 mg of L-Tyrosine or half of that amount can raise dopamine levels for a long time [39].

References

39. Kühn, S., et al., Food for thought: association between dietary tyrosine and cognitive performance in younger and older adults. Psychol Res, 2019. 83(6): p. 1097-1106.

40. Boileau, I., et al., Rapid Recovery of Vesicular Dopamine Levels in Methamphetamine Users in Early Abstinence. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2016. 41(4): p. 1179-87.

(13) 01:18:58 Dopamine Trough Recovery, Postpartum Depression 

Dopamine Trough Recovery

If you want to recover from the dopamine trough that was caused by any of your behaviors or any activity, you had to wait for enough time that the baseline level of dopamine that you were prior to the peak would come back, and you would feel better. However, most people were unaware of this, and as a result, when they feel that low, they become less motivated and also a lot depressed, and in such a condition, they try to engage in those activities that cause a dopamine spike. This is a poor tactic that will just result in your dopamine peaks from the same experience becoming less intense [40].

Postpartum Depression: 

A state where the baseline levels of dopamine have dropped below what they were before a recent peak, thrilling victory, or conduct. To exit the dopamine more quickly, there are a few options available. The first is to just wait for the condition to pass. Most people were unaware that dopamine circuitry requires time to heal and restore both in dopamine synthesis and in the pool of dopamine that is easily released. Dopamine is housed in vesicles that are discharged from the terminals of neurons that start in the nucleus accumbens and VTA of our brain [41].

References

40. Boileau, I., et al., Rapid Recovery of Vesicular Dopamine Levels in Methamphetamine Users in Early Abstinence. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2016. 41(4): p. 1179-87.

41. Payne, J.L. and J. Maguire, Pathophysiological mechanisms implicated in postpartum depression. Front Neuroendocrinol, 2019. 52: p. 165-180.

(14) 01:23:31 Dopamine Dynamics, “Dopamine Stacking”; Intrinsic Motivation 

The ventral tegmental area (VTA)-to-nucleus accumbens (NAc) dopamine projection drives reward-driven learning and motivation. Dopamine's role in both is uncertain. Computational theories of adaptive behavior use prediction errors to learn. Dopamine cell spiking encodes them. Dopamine release increases as animals approach rewards, reflecting reward expectations. This discrepancy may be due to behavioral tasks, delayed dopamine cell spiking, or spike-independent dopamine release. In a decision-making task, we compare VTA dopamine cell spiking to NAc dopamine release. Reward cues enhanced spiking and release. Nevertheless, NAc core dopamine release covaried with dynamically changing reward expectations without VTA dopamine cell spiking variations. Findings indicate that dopamine release is regulated differently for different functions: Local control motivates, and broadcast burst signals teach [42].

Dopamine Stacking; Intrinsic: 

Avoid regularly stacking and layering too many dopamine-producing behaviors at once. You should value the hobbies that inspire you, whether they be skiing, playing music, dancing, etc. if you are one of the fortunate few who does not require additional stimuli and can sustain that intrinsic delight and motivation over time. Intrinsic motivation cannot be replaced by anything outside of oneself, not even by medicine, pill, or speech. Intrinsic motivation permeates all human endeavors and behavior because it encompasses so much of what drove our species to this point in its evolution and what drives each of us toward our goals. And although though it is a type of science that people were not aware of at the time, it is magic if it happens spontaneously and with enjoyment without the need for any additional tools.

References

42. Mohebi, A., et al., Dissociable dopamine dynamics for learning and motivation. Nature, 2019. 570(7759): p. 65-70.

(15)  01:38:10 Making Effort the Reward, Growth Mindset 

When work starts to feel like a reward in and of itself, or when friction feels like a reward, you can go from an idea and goal, no matter how big or scary, to achieving that goal while feeling like you're having fun the whole time. This doesn't mean it will be bliss the whole time, but it is possible to use the dynamics of both dopamine peaks and dopamine troughs to not only maintain your baseline level of dopamine but to pull it up [43].

A growth mindset is an amazing discovery and a tool that both young people and adults can use to get better at anything. The basic idea of a growth mindset is to have the attitude that if you can't do something yet, it's not the end of the world. There are a number of tools and techniques that people use to adopt a growth mindset, but it all starts with how you feel about not being able to do something yet. When we are in a performance context or when we expect ourselves to be able to motivate and we can't, it can set off a downward spiral of motivation because we are so used to the link between desire, motivation, and results [44].

References

43. Wang, A.R., et al., The role of dopamine in reward-related behavior: shining new light on an old debate. 2020. 124(2): p. 309-311.

44. Bromberg-Martin, E.S., M. Matsumoto, and O. Hikosaka, Dopamine in motivational control: rewarding, aversive, and alerting. Neuron, 2010. 68(5): p. 815-34.

(16) 01:41:49 Tool: Overcome Procrastination

You can use a powerful set of tools to combat states of lack of motivation and procrastination. These tools also deal with issues like overthinking as it relates to procrastination and lack of drive. If you remember, a peak in dopamine is followed by a trough in dopamine. This trough in dopamine is experienced as pain, wanting, or craving; this pain is craving, wanting, or needing to achieve a specific state that is different from the one you are in; you want to get out of that trough. This trough is a stimulus for the ongoing release of dopamine, which gives you the drive to move forward and pursue some goals.

The solution to getting out of a pain trough when we lack motivation or are delaying is one of two things. You can either wait until your motivation returns, which is what many individuals choose to do. Instead of being in a painful state, individuals start doing things that give them a sense of accomplishment when they procrastinate instead of doing other things that are less unpleasant than their current situation. They then enter a state of pseudo-panic and use anxiety to their advantage by mobilizing their mental and physical resources to finish the task [45].

Figure 11. Dopamine in Chronic Pain [46].

To beat procrastination, we had to comprehend that the depth of the trough following a dopamine peak is proportional to how high that peak was and how quickly that peak occurred, and the rate at which you get out of the trough is proportional to how steep that trough is. To understand this in simple terms, imagine you are in an unmotivated state and procrastinating. You think that you should clean the house or do something, but these approaches take time to complete. You can escape the dopamine through more quickly, though, if you use that lack of motivation to work harder than you would normally when in that state. Cleaning the house is more difficult than simply sitting down and doing nothing when you lack motivation and use it as a means of procrastination. Harder things don't mean tissue damage or anything else. Indeed, how hard or easy something feels at the time determines how the dopamine system functions. These more difficult tasks cause a rebound out of the dopamine dip faster than you would feel unmotivated [47].

References

45. Li, C., et al., Role of Descending Dopaminergic Pathways in Pain Modulation. Curr Neuropharmacol, 2019. 17(12): p. 1176-1182.

46. Serafini, R.A., K.D. Pryce, and V. Zachariou, The Mesolimbic Dopamine System in Chronic Pain and Associated Affective Comorbidities. Biological Psychiatry, 2020. 87(1): p. 64-73.

47. van Reij, R.R.I., E.A.J. Joosten, and N.J. van den Hoogen, Dopaminergic neurotransmission and genetic variation in chronification of post-surgical pain. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 2019. 123(6): p. 853-864.

(17) 01:52:16 Tool: Meditation & Procrastination 

Although mediation doesn't enhance dopamine, as we previously discussed, it can be difficult for some people, particularly those who find it difficult or who don't practice it frequently. Hence, if you find yourself putting off doing your meditation for 5–10 minutes, that might be really frustrating unless you are an experienced practitioner. We know that the return from that trough to normal and even elevated level of baseline dopamine is going to be faster and more robust, so it all comes down to forcing your body and mind into a deeper state of pain. By steepening and deepening the trough you are already in, you will find yourself returning to a motivated state [48].

Figure 12. Mediation Increases Dopamine levels in the brain [49]. 

References

48. Kjaer, T.W., et al., Increased dopamine tone during meditation-induced change of consciousness. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res, 2002. 13(2): p. 255-9.

49. Ruiz-Tejada, A., J. Neisewander, and C.S. Katsanos, Regulation of Voluntary Physical Activity Behavior: A Review of Evidence Involving Dopaminergic Pathways in the Brain. 2022. 12(3): p. 333.