Podcast Host and Guest: Dr. Andrew Huberman (Stanford Associate Professor - brain development, brain plasticity, and neural regeneration and repair fields).

Lab website

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Podcast link

Key takeaways

Visualization and mental practice enhance performance through neuroplasticity; spatial visualization improves math (Segment 01).
Mental training and visualization rely on neuroplasticity, including adult self-directed adaptive plasticity (Segment 02).
Neuronal plasticity involves both strengthening and weakening connections for learning and memory (Segment 04).
Giving cognitive labels to mental exercises improves their effectiveness and neural machinery (Segment 08).
Practical mental training is brief, repeated, and done 2-3 times per week. Consistency is key (Segment 10).
Sleep is crucial for practical physical and mental training and learning (Segment 12).
First-person mental training is more effective than third-person visualization for performance enhancement (Segment 14).
primary motor cortex essential for motor skill consolidation; cerebellum aids in movement planning; rTMS therapy effective (Segment 15).
Training in inhibitory control enhances performance on cognitive tasks requiring action delay (Segment 17).
Aphantasia and synesthesia are unique neurological conditions that affect perception and cognition (Segment 18).

If you did not understand the summary properly, here is the link to the same summary in which Tyler and I elaborate on the podcast in more detail (like to a 7th-grade child) https://www.researchhub.com/post/944/eli10-science-based-mental-training.

Overview and Purpose:

Oftentimes in conversation, podcast hosts/guests will reference a given study but aren't able to provide the entire context or citation link for listeners. To help underscore the impact of science podcasts, such as this one, we construct the posts to reference all studies discussed in their conversation as well as provide some more background/information on topics that we think the listeners may be interested in. If there are changes, you'd like to see to the format of these posts or any other feedback you'd like to provide - please let us know in the Discussion section below this post.

Note: In the ethos of Open Science and transparent publication, this is a living document that will undergo continuous improvement. If you have suggestions, expansions, or corrections please feel free to comment in this thread and we will adjust the document as well as award some RSC for your help.

Summary:

In the following podcast, Professor Dr. Andrew Huberman will delve into the topic of neuroplasticity, exploring its occurrence within the brain and body. This understanding is crucial for those utilizing mental training and visualization techniques. Additionally, Dr. Huberman will examine the neurological and physiological effects of dedicated mental visualization practices. The notion that the brain cannot distinguish between imagined events and actual occurrences is unfounded. The discussion will encompass the correlation between actual and perceived experiences and their potential utilization in optimizing mental training and visualization. Additionally, the speaker will expound upon the most effective forms of mental health and visualization techniques applicable to various domains such as music, mathematics, problem-solving, motor learning, and sports. This will provide a framework for individuals to allocate a brief period each day towards accelerating their learning in their preferred area. The speaker will also address the neurological processes involved in mental visualization and imagination, particularly in individuals with varying degrees of natural aptitude in these areas. It has been found that there exists significant variability in these abilities among individuals, as well as the potential for improvement over time. The positive development is that individuals have the capacity to enhance their mental training and visualization skills, which can be advantageous. Additionally, the author will touch upon the topic of individuals on the autism spectrum and those with synesthesia, a condition characterized by the blending of various perceptual experiences. This phenomenon is exemplified by individuals who associate numbers with specific colors and vice versa. The discussion will also explore the correlation between these conditions and mental health and visualization. Lastly, he will address the application of mental health and visualization techniques in relation to particular challenges, such as public speaking and sports performance.

(01): 00:00:00 Mental Training & Visualization

The utilization of mental exercises and visualization techniques has garnered significant interest in academic circles. Multiple studies have provided evidence supporting the efficacy of these methods in enhancing cognitive abilities and expediting the acquisition of knowledge. Acquiring knowledge in disciplines such as mathematics, music, as well as physical activities like dance and sports. Upon reviewing the literature pertaining to mental practice and visualization, it becomes evident that a minimal amount of practice and visualization is sufficient for enhancing performance in any given task. However, it is crucial that such practice and visualization be executed in a precise and methodical manner. The efficacy of visualization and other cognitive practices is contingent upon the phenomenon of neuroplasticity. The neuroplasticity of the nervous system, comprising the brain, spinal cord, and interconnecting pathways, as well as the afferent and efferent connections between the organs and tissues of the body and the brain and spinal cord, is widely acknowledged. The aforementioned statement implies that the entire system has the ability to adapt in response to experience, thereby facilitating the completion of tasks that were previously unattainable. Contrary to popular belief, the notion that the human brain is incapable of differentiating between imagined events and actual occurrences is unfounded. A comparative analysis can be drawn between an empirical and a hypothetical encounter. A recent research study has provided new and original perspectives on the particular aspects of mathematical proficiency that are significantly influenced by spatial visualization instruction [1].

Figure 1. Mental training and visualization [2].

References

1. Lowrie, T., T. Logan, and M. Hegarty, The Influence of Spatial Visualization Training on Students’ Spatial Reasoning and Mathematics Performance. Journal of Cognition and Development, 2019. 20(5): p. 729-751.

2. THE POWER OF VISUALIZATION. 2017; Available from: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/power-visualization-daniel-remon/.

(2): 00:08:04 Developmental vs. Adult Neuroplasticity

The study of mental training and visualization dates back to the 1800s, as evidenced by Galton's publication on the statistics of mental imagery [3]. This early research sought to quantify and comprehend the cognitive processes underlying mental imagery, with the aim of facilitating more efficient and enduring learning. Mental training and visualization are predicated on the concept of neuroplasticity, a term that encompasses various phenomena. Neuroplasticity includes developmental plasticity, which occurs between birth and age 25 and can be characterized as passive plasticity. This refers to the changes that occur in the nervous system as a result of engaging with the world and experiencing life during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. It is important to note that the cessation of passive developmental plasticity and the initiation of adult neuroplasticity does not occur abruptly on an individual's 25th birthday. Rather, there is a gradual tapering off of developmental plasticity that takes place between the ages of 0 and 25, with some individuals experiencing this transition around the age of 26 and others around the age of 23. The average age at which passive plasticity diminishes is 25. However, adult neuroplasticity, which begins in adolescence and continues throughout one's life, even into their 80s, 90s, or 100s, is another form of neuroplasticity [4].

The phenomenon of adult neuroplasticity differs significantly from developmental neuroplasticity in that it is a form of neuroplasticity that can be intentionally directed towards specific desired learning outcomes. Adult plasticity is essentially a self-directed adaptive plasticity, distinct from other forms of neuroplasticity such as maladaptive neuroplasticity, which can occur as a result of head trauma or concussion and impairs the brain and nervous system's ability to function. It is crucial to comprehend the concept of developmental plasticity, wherein the brain and nervous system undergo alterations in response to diverse experiences, either positively or negatively. Additionally, there exists adult self-directed adaptive plasticity, which enables individuals to purposefully induce specific changes in cognitive or motor function through activities such as sports, dance, or a combination of both.

Figure 2. Neuroplasticity and neurodevelopment [5].

References

3. Galton, F., Statistics of Mental Imagery. Mind, 1880. 5(19): p. 301-318.

4. Lafuente, E. and P.J.F.i.g. Beldade, Genomics of developmental plasticity in animals. 2019. 10: p. 720.

5. Diniz, C.R.A.F. and A.P. Crestani, The times they are a-changin’: a proposal on how brain flexibility goes beyond the obvious to include the concepts of “upward” and “downward” to neuroplasticity. Molecular Psychiatry, 2023. 28(3): p. 977-992.

(3): 00:11:42 Learning New Skills: Focus & Sleep

No of your age, you need two essential ingredients to develop self-directed adaptability: attention, and enough sleep. The first factor it requires is “focus” a dedicated attention to the thing you are trying to learn, that the first step and that actually triggers a number of different chemicals and electrical prosthesis in the brain that are often associated with agitation and frustration, and these two things is a reflection of the release of specific chemicals in particular norepinephrine and epinephrine also called as adrenaline and noradrenaline in the brain and body that creates this discomfort and this heightened level of alertness and attention that many of us don’t like and tend to back away from but it is exactly that chemical or neurochemical which signals to the neuron the nerve cells in the brain and elsewhere in the body that something needs to change because if you think about it if you can do something perfectly or if you try and do something and it doesn’t cause any neurochemical change in your brain and body then there is no reason for your brain and its connections with the body to change in in any particular way, so you need focused dedicated attention to the thing that you are trying to learn, its often accompanied by agitation frustration etc. That's quite OK; in fact, it's a sign that things are going well and that the child is on the road to learning.

For self-directed adaptive plasticity, a second component is required, which is a period of deep rest, or more specifically, a peaceful night's sleep, particularly the night after intensive attention to the content being learned. The remodeling of brain connections, or neuroplasticity, is facilitated by deep states of relaxation like meditation and non-sleep profound rest, according to a number of research including both human and animal participants. The connections between neurons are mostly changed during the first significant night of sleep, particularly the first night after an attempt to learn anything through intense attention. Passive developmental plasticity, as opposed to self-directed adaptive plasticity, also requires appropriate sleep but operates via relatively different underlying mechanisms. It's essential to be aware that if you wake up in the middle of the night after attempting to learn something new or can't sleep for any other reason the night after a learning experience, there are second and third-night implications. Sleeping causes neuroplasticity changes in brain circuits and synaptic connections that demonstrate self-directed adaptive plasticity [6].

Figure 3. Sleeping and neuroplasticity [7].

References

6. Song, S. and L.G. Cohen, Practice and sleep form different aspects of skill. Nature Communications, 2014. 5(1): p. 3407.

7. Stee, W. and P. Peigneux, Post-learning micro- and macro-structural neuroplasticity changes with time and sleep. Biochemical Pharmacology, 2021. 191: p. 114369.

(4): 00:14:49 Long-Term Potentiation (LTP), Long-Term Depression (LTD) & New Skills

The two main kinds of neuronal plasticity, long-term potentiation, and long-term depression, are among its many manifestations. The word "depression" has a lot of negative connotations since it is frequently used in bad contexts. However, in the context of neuroplasticity, protracted depression may be seen as a change in the excitability and inter-neuronal connections that may help with the development of certain motor abilities. According to research, long-term depression and the development of motor abilities are strongly related phenomena. This is due to the fact that a sizable component of learning includes the inhibition or suppression of certain actions, which eventually results in the formation of a coordinated motor response.

Two types of synaptic plasticity, long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), are responsible for learning and memory in the brain.

LTP is a term used to describe how repeated stimulation strengthens synaptic connections between neurons. Repeated activation of a synapse strengthens the bond between the connected neurons, enabling more effective communication between them. Long-term memory development is assumed to be mostly mediated by this process. Contrarily, LTD describes the weakening of synaptic connections that results from extended inactivity. The link between the neurons involved weakens when a synapse is not stimulated for a lengthy period of time, decreasing the effectiveness of communication between them. This mechanism is believed to contribute to memory erasure and memory alteration.

Both LTP and LTD are considered significant factors when it comes to acquiring new abilities. LTP could be particularly significant in the early phases of skill learning when the brain is trying to create new neural connections to carry out the job. However, LTD may become more significant as the skill gets more automatic as the brain strives to hone and organize the neural connections required for completing the ability. Overall, it is believed that effective learning and memory depend on the balance between LTP and LTD. While too much LTD might result in forgetfulness and trouble retaining new memories, too much LTP can result in a dependence on neuronal connections that are already too strong [8].

The general trend is that a person's motor functions and utensil movements are less coordinated when they are younger and more coordinated as they get older. However, very old people have difficulties with coordinated movements because of age-related cognitive decline and motor-related dementia. When learning a new motor skill as a baby, child, adolescent, or adult, you eliminate incorrect movements to arrive at only the correct movements in a very reflexive and repeated manner. Think of a child learning to crawl and then walk. In these situations, certain connections in the brain are strengthened, or what we called potentiation. The quieting or silencing of certain synapses, or the connections between neurons, is essentially necessary for learning new motor skills, but long-term depression is also a factor.

In order to improve some types of motor skills and even some types of cognitive skills, we have long-term potentiation and long-term depression. If you watch someone try to learn a certain dance move or someone try to serve tennis for the first time, it's all over the place. Okay, maybe it's not all over the place in the sense that they are doing a jumping jack while trying to serve the tennis.

The same is true for learning anything in the cognitive domain, so if you're learning a new language, it's unlikely that you'll know every word in that language, and then you can just remove some words to get to the correct sentence structure, which is what you're trying to accomplish. Instead, you might need to practice a variety of strategies before you can achieve the very narrow coordinated, and directed movement that is made possible by neural connections in the brain and body. Instead, you must suppress your original tongue, but the key is that in order to create a new language, you must control the pronunciation of some sounds while suppressing others. Therefore, we can genuinely think of neuroplasticity as a process of both building up and removing connections, which we're going to refer to as long-term depression and long-term potentiation, respectively. We engage a certain neuron when we are trying to answer a particular math issue, which causes it to fire and release chemicals. However, it actively inhibits the activity of other neurons, and we are oblivious to how our brain inhibits particular activity. With mental exercises and visualization, you are catching both processes: potentiation, which is the formation and strengthening of connections, and de-potentiation, which is the weakening of connections that are not appropriate for the material you are attempting to learn.

Figure 4. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Long-Term Depression (LTD)[9].

References

8. Bliss, T.V. and S.F. Cooke, Long-term potentiation and long-term depression: a clinical perspective. Clinics (Sao Paulo), 2011. 66 Suppl 1(Suppl 1): p. 3-17.

9. Long-term synaptic plasticity. Available from: https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/long-term-synaptic-plasticity.

(5): 00:23:42 Principle #1: Very Brief, Simple, Repeated Visualization

There is an experiment for mental training and visualization, if someone told you to close your eyes and imagine a yellow cube and next to that yellow cube is red rose, and if you are told by someone to fly up above the cube and rose and look at them from the top, and then you are told to fly back around and land behind those and look at them from the perspective of behind that yellow cube and that red rose, data shows that most people will be able to do that, and we also know from neuroimaging study in which people are placed into a functional magnetic resonance imaging scanner that during the sort of visualization that your visual cortex and associated area light up and they become very active in similar but not identical ways to how they would light up and be activated were you to actually look at a yellow cube and red rose on a screen and perhaps fly above them virtually of course and land behind them of if you were to actually to actually at yellow cube and red rose in the real world right in front of your table then you know get up on your tippy toes and look down on them from the top and then walk around the table and look at them from other side, so there some degree of what we called perceptual equivalence between real world experiences and digital world experiences and imagined experiences. Between 90 and 95 percent of individuals would be able to perform all of these tasks, and most people could even perform the sensorimotor task of imagining what it would feel like to touch or feel the soft, dense, and high-density hair of a chinchilla. A minor portion of those 5 to 15% who are unable to accomplish it all are among the 5 to 10% of those who are less able to do it. Aphantasia, or the inability to mentally visualize, affects these persons.

The majority of people are actually quite adept at visualizing things when instructed to do so, and this is an extremely important point. However, when instructed to visualize something, it is typically very straightforward and takes only a few seconds to generate in the auditory or visual parts of the brain. However, when this is repeated repeatedly, it becomes much harder for everyone to do, and in fact, the majority of people find it impossible to visualize long-term scenarios.

The first rule of mental training and visualization is that you should keep your visualizations brief, on the order of about 15 to 20 seconds or so, pretty darn sparse, meaning that if you are trying to learn something, you shouldn't include a lot of elaborate visualization or sequences of motor steps or motor sequences. This is because the best way to use mental training and visualization to engage in neuroplasticity and learning is to do so [10].

Figure 5. Motor sequences in learning [11].

References

10. Predoiu, R., et al., Visualisation techniques in sport - the mental road map for success. 2020. 59: p. 245-256.

11. Dahms, C., et al., The importance of different learning stages for motor sequence learning after stroke. 2020. 41(1): p. 270-286.

(6): 00:30:51 Principle #2: Mental Training Cannot Replace Real Training

The foundation of what happens in the brain when we mentally visualize something is laid by a number of different researchers, but in particular by Roger Shepherd, who conducted this research at Stanford, and Stephen Kosslyn, who is currently at Harvard. While there were no sophisticated brain imaging tools like Functional MRI at the time Shepherd conducted these amazing experiments, Functional MRI was able to corroborate his findings. Shepherd asked students to mentally picture simple objects like a square or a triangle, and he timed how long it took them to do so. In his experiment, Shepherd discovered that when participants were instructed to mentally picture relatively basic items, they did so quite fast, but when they were instructed to picture extremely complex objects, it took them longer to do so. Shepherd and his colleagues found that how long it takes somebody to generate and rotate a given visual image scales directly with the complexity of that image in fact kosslyn did some great experiment’s he shows people a picture of map, a map drawn on piece of paper this was a map of island it included things like a loading dock for some boats it had a location for getting food on the island at some trees some other small things drawn on this map, people looked at this and memorized it or in other experiments they just had people imagine this island and locations of all these landmarks on this islands but then he had people imagine moving or walking from one location on the island or you are at loading dock now move to the restaurant, then move to the palm tree, what kosslyn was absolutely incredible what he found that the amount of time that it takes people to move from one location to another location on the map scaled linearly directly with the actual physical location between those objects on the map.

Most people are still trying to understand what you're saying when you say, "Okay, interesting, you know how things happen in the real world dictates how they happen in our mind's eye." The significance of this is that when we look at anything in the actual world, our neurons get excited and send signals to the visual cortex, where the information is processed at a certain rate. As demonstrated by Shepard and Kosslyn, the spatial connection between imagined and actual experiences is the same, as is the processing speed for both types of experiences. When we visualize anything, we are picturing an actual event taking place; a real event means that your brain is acting in the exact same way at the level of the neurons. According to statistics, it takes longer for individuals to imagine a cube being flipped from top to bottom than it does for them to actually view the thing. Real and imagined events occur at the same rate. At the neurological level, mental images are exact replicas of actual occurrences. Similar to how people think in the actual world, mental exercises reproduce the same neuronal firing pattern [12].

Figure 6. Mental images fMRI [13].

References

12. Immenroth, M., et al., Mental training in surgical education: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Surg, 2007. 245(3): p. 385-91.

13. Bhatt, T., et al., Neural Mechanisms Involved in Mental Imagery of Slip-Perturbation While Walking: A Preliminary fMRI Study. 2018. 12.

(7): 00:37:36 Principle #3: Combining Real & Mental Training

One such excellent example would be the so-called Mobius strip, which is actually a strip that is contiguous and travels up, loops around, curves around, and then travels back, and when you look at it you cannot tell where it starts and where it stops. The other experiment uses what are known as bi-stable images or impossible figures, which are the figures or objects when you look at them they have these odd features like where they start and where they stop.

Another example of an impossible figure is a small set of cubes that appear to be coming at you from a right-angle bend, but when you look at them for a little longer, the little piece that is facing up appears to be in the front and you are unable to distinguish between what is in front and what is in the back, so it is called an impossible figure because you were unable to frame it in your mind to distinguish what was closer to you and what was farther away. bi-stable images are somewhat similar although different in sense that they typically are simple silhouettes for instance the faces verses bi-stable images is perhaps the most famous of these where you look at this images it’s very simple and it looks like two vases but then you look at it a little bit longer and you realize that you’re looking at side angle or the profile of two faces looking at one another and when you see those two faces looking at one another you can’t see the vases at the same time but if you decide to see the vases again you can see the faces again but the faces disappear, so bi-stable means you can’t see the faces and vases at same time and impossible figures and bi-stable images are capturing the fact that your visual and some of the associated areas that compute visual scenes in your world are essentially trying to recreate whatever that is out in front of them that’s effectively your visual system does it’s very good at recreating visual images in your brain and in your mind eyes because if you think about it even with your eyes open your brain is just creating an abstract representation of what it thinks is out there but when it comes to assigning an identity to something like face or vase that is constrained by different neural circuits by different areas of the brain and somehow those circuits can’t be co-active and we cannot see the faces and vases at exactly the same time, we can switch back and forth really quickly when we are looking at impossible figure and thinks that’s the front of it and that’s the back but we can’t see the back and forth at the same time.

Now that impossible figures and bi-stable images can be easily seen on a phone or computer, or if someone shows you a picture of them on paper in front of you, you can conduct these kinds of perceptual experiments by instructing people to look at a face, a vase, or the front of a cube while I make it appear at the back of the cube. However, if you try to imagine a bi-stable image, you cannot, in fact, no one can, until recently

Now, if someone asks you to draw an impossible shape with a pen on paper and then asks you to imagine that shape, you will be able to do it. What this means is that the combination of imagined and real-world experiences, or real motor movements with what you imagine in your mind's eye, really gives you the most depth and flexibility over your mental visualization. By doing this, we can really put an end to the third principle of mental training and visualization, which is that you must be able to visualize the object [14].

Figure 7. Bi-stable images in Mental training [15].

References

14. Clark, D.R., M.I. Lambert, and A.M. Hunter, Contemporary perspectives of core stability training for dynamic athletic performance: a survey of athletes, coaches, sports science and sports medicine practitioners. Sports Medicine - Open, 2018. 4(1): p. 32.

15. Devia, C., M. Concha-Miranda, and E. Rodríguez, Bi-Stable Perception: Self-Coordinating Brain Regions to Make-Up the Mind. 2022. 15.

(8): 00:43:17 Principle #4: Assigning Real-World Labels to Visualizations

Another thing that makes mental training and visualization more effective is when we assign cognitive labels to what’s going on when we visualize, it means that people are much better at manipulating faces and vases in their mind eye only when they draw impossible figures with their hand then they are manipulating abstract objects like impossible figures in part because by labeling them faces and vases people are able to capture a lot of neural machinery that’s related to faces and vases in fact we have entire brain areas on both side of the brain devoted to the processing of faces they’re called fusiform face area, we have other areas in the brain that are involved in processing of 3D objects but faces are of particular value, there is value to understanding what a face is as opposed to non-face, and in fact the simplest way to put this is that the human brain is in many ways human face recognition and expression of faces recognition machine, unless you’re in a profession in which the relation between 3D objects and your ability to manipulate them is very important you’re are not going to have a lot of neural real state specially devoted to that some people will be better to it and some people will be worse but when it comes to faces unless you have a condition like prophetsagnosia which is an inability to recognize some famous faces. And also there are people who can recognize many faces called super recognizers, they recognize faces in large crowds. They are even better than AI face recognizers.

But the point is that when anything has a label that you recognize from your real-world experiences rather than an abstract or fictitious title, you are better able to manage specific items or visualize things more precisely in your mind's eye. The crucial experience of doing things in the actual world and supporting it with your mental training and visualization, and not only relying on mental training and visualization, helps to support your mental images. Additionally, mental training is dependent on cognitive labels as well as physical features. It's not impossible to tell oneself falsehoods and then improve as a result of those lies. It is crucial that your mental exercises and visualizations faithfully reflect the training you are performing in the actual world. Most crucially, we significantly increased the quantity of neuronal machinery in the brain when we gave identity to these mental exercises and visualization [16].

Figure 8. AI Face Recognition [17].

References

16. Wu, H. and H. Ji, JAMIE: joint analysis of multiple ChIP-chip experiments. Bioinformatics, 2010. 26(15): p. 1864-70.

17. Chowdhury, M., What is The Importance of Facial Recognition in Today’s World?

(9): 00:50:37 Principle #5: Mental Imagery Equivalence to Real-World Perception

if someone asked you to close your eyes and visualize a ceiling with one black and one white tile, we know from experiments that people tend to move their eyes upward when they are imagining things above them, such as the ceiling. Some experiments show that mental training and visualization is capturing many of the exact same features of real-world behavior and perception, but not all of them. In contrast, when you imagine something above you, you tend to move your eyes up. Furthermore, if someone asked you to picture an elephant and a mouse next to one another, you would have some idea of the elephant's and mouse's relative sizes based on real-world comparisons. Elephants are often larger than mice, although mice are smaller. If someone asked you to tell me about the specifics of a mouse's face, you would need much more time to digest that information than you would for an elephant body component. Larger items may be processed by your mind more rapidly than smaller ones. It takes more time to complete complex motor sequences in your mind's eye than simple ones [18].

Figure 9. Mental Imagery and Real-World Perception [19].

References

18. Pearson, J. and S.M. Kosslyn, The heterogeneity of mental representation: Ending the imagery debate. 2015. 112(33): p. 10089-10092.

19. Dijkstra, N., S.E. Bosch, and M.A.J.v. Gerven, Vividness of Visual Imagery Depends on the Neural Overlap with Perception in Visual Areas. 2017. 37(5): p. 1367-1373.

(10): 00:55:28 Tools: Effective Mental Training: Epochs, Repetitions, Sets & Frequency

The first rule of effective training, as well as in mental training and visualization, is that it should be brief, simple, and repeated. Sometimes a brief exercise should last 5 to 15 seconds, while some studies show that you should perform 50 to 75 repetitions in a session. The amount of time you rest in between repetitions depends on what you are trying to accomplish. The entire motor sequence should be completed in 15 seconds. You could do a task three times in 15 seconds if it took five seconds in your mind's eye and about five seconds in reality. The 15-second Epoch would only be repeated once. After that, you would rest for around 15 seconds before repeating, resting, and repeating. These epochs and rest intervals don't have to be precise; for example, you may envision performing three swing repetitions in just 14 seconds before performing another one or delaying until the end of 15 seconds. According to the literature, if you can do something well in the actual world, you'll be able to do it even better when you visualize it in your mind's eye. But if you want to grow better at something you've never done before, attempt to do it as often as you can. Mental exercises can help you perform actions in real life with greater accuracy. Similar to this, if a person repeats a cognitive task—like speaking a new language—for a period of time within a specific epoch, take a break, and then does it 50–75 more times, it can be completed in 5–15 seconds. The recurring nature of these 50 to 75 repetitions in a given session is also a cornerstone of efficient mental training and visualization. These 5 to 15-second intervals are the real cornerstone of training and visualization.

One another important factor of mental training and visualization is how often you perform that specific task. study shows that repeating sessions two to three times per week appears to be most effective, and then you don’t need to perform that mental training for a long period of time. Once you have consolidated the motor performance or the cognitive performance of something, that is consolidated in the neural circuits that are responsible for performing that mental task [20].

References

20. Schuster, C., et al., Best practice for motor imagery: a systematic literature review on motor imagery training elements in five different disciplines. BMC Med, 2011. 9: p. 75.

(11): 01:05:00 Adding Mental Training; Injury, Travel or Layoffs

Over the past two decades, the concept of mental toughness (MT) has exploded in popularity within the field of sports and exercise psychology. Although hundreds of research on mental toughness have been published since the turn of the century, questions remain concerning how it should be conceptualized and measured. For people with disabilities who want to maintain their motor skills, or for those who have survived a traumatic brain injury and are attempting to create safe experiences in a limited environment, real-world training has been shown to be more beneficial than mental training and even more effective than no training at all. Mental training has been shown to speed up or at least enhance skill performance in patients with stroke or tissue injury without putting them in danger of doing the same actions as in the real world. If someone has a broken bone or suffers from constant discomfort, for instance, they may need to take it easy for a while. Moreover, if you give one group more training hours per week for skill than the other, the physical training group will outperform the mental training group. It has been shown that combining mental and physical training yields better results than either one alone. You can get the same benefits from performing nine hours of physical activity and one hour of mental training as you would from doing ten hours of physical activity [21].

The results would be amazing if you did 10 hours per week of real-world physical training and then added an hour of mental training to that. Physical real-world training is always more effective than mental training in the cognitive domain. If someone does real-world training instead of purely mental training, that will be the best use of their time.

Figure 10. Motor skills development in infants [22].

References

21. Gucciardi, D.F., Mental toughness: progress and prospects. Current Opinion in Psychology, 2017. 16: p. 17-23.

22. Your Baby’s Development—Get Their Motor (Skills) Running! ; Available from: https://www.similac.com/baby-feeding/development/motor-skills-activities.html.
(12): 01:11:09 Timing of Mental Training & Sleep

Exercises involving visualization require both sleep and rest, which are both essential for effective physical and mental training. It is feasible to do both physical and mental exercises on the same day or separately. However, make an effort to obtain a good night's sleep the night before or the night following mental exercise. Low levels of mood and emotion regulation, a higher chance of anxiety or mood disorders, and a higher risk of suicidal thoughts are all associated with inadequate and poor-quality sleep. To address this important public health problem [23].

A growing body of research indicates that sleep is crucial to procedural learning. Sleep has most recently been linked to the maintenance of motor-skill learning after initial acquisition. The impacts of various training regimens, the long-term development of motor learning across several nights of sleep, and the temporal evolution of motor learning before and after sleep remain unclear. Here, we provide results from participants who underwent numerous days of training and testing on a sequential finger-tapping task. The results show, firstly, that after initial training, tiny practice-dependent increases are feasible before but not after the significant practice-independent benefits that emerge over the course of a sleep cycle. Second, the amount of future sleep-dependent learning that occurs overnight is unaffected by increasing the initial training dose. Thirdly, there may be two distinct motor-learning processes because the amount of sleep-dependent learning does not correspond with the amount of practice-dependent learning attained during training. Finally, even though the first night of sleep after training is when the majority of sleep-dependent motor-skill acquisition occurs, subsequent nights of sleep continue to benefit performance [24].

Figure 11. Deep sleep and motor skills [25].

References

23. Short, M.A., K. Bartel, and M.A. Carskadon, Sleep and mental health in children and adolescents, in Sleep and health. 2019, Elsevier. p. 435-445.

24. Walker, M.P., et al., Sleep and the time course of motor skill learning. Learn Mem, 2003. 10(4): p. 275-84.

25. Bansal, D.G. Deep Sleep Reinforces the Learning of New Motor Skills. Available from: https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2017/08/407981/deep-sleep-reinforces-learning-new-motor-skills.

(13): 01:15:17 Role of Gender & Age on Mental Training

Mental training, which refers to activities and methods intended to enhance cognitive and emotional performance, can have an impact on both gender and age.

According to the study, there can be gender-specific disparities in the efficacy of particular mental training techniques for men and women. For instance, research indicated that men and women responded differently to mindfulness-based stress reduction training, with women demonstrating higher reductions in mood and stress levels than males [26]. The study was published in the journal Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. In a separate research, which was also published in the journal Psychology of Sport and Exercise, it was discovered that men and women responded to imagery-based mental training in different ways, with women demonstrating higher increases in self-efficacy and confidence [27].

The efficiency of mental training might also be affected by age. Although studies have shown that people of all ages may benefit from mental training, other methods could be better suitable for particular age groups. For instance, a study published in the Journal of Cognitive Enhancement found that older adults (aged 60–75) showed greater improvements in cognitive control after engaging in cognitive training that concentrated on multitasking, whereas younger adults (aged 18–35) responded better to working memory training. In general, while creating and putting into practice mental training programs, it is crucial to take individual variances in gender and age into account.

References

26. Holt, A., Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Transcendental Meditation: Current State of Research. Journal of Patient-Centered Research and Reviews, 2015. 2: p. 64-68.

27. Moran, A., Expertise and mental practice. 2016. p. 421-428.

(14): 01:17:10 First-Person vs. Third-Person Visualization; Eyes Open vs. Closed

Which is better, first person or third person? Instead of viewing oneself from the inside out or from outside of your body, first-person mental training and visualization would include visualizing yourself performing something and seeing yourself from the inside out. For instance, first-person mental training and visualization include viewing oneself from your own perspective rather than through someone else's. The evidence suggests that first-person mental training and visualization are frequently more effective than third-person ones. Imagine that you could learn that talent more rapidly if you had that third-person perspective, where you could see every aspect of what you were attempting to do in precise detail. Because you've already done something flawlessly, you'd picture yourself executing it wonderfully. It is more beneficial to visualize and do mental exercises in the first person as opposed to the third. Instead of first-person visualizations, third-person ones might boost motivation to engage in the behavior [28].

It is obvious that closing your eyes and trying to perform that specific cognitive task, or problem-solving in your head, in that case, is ideal. This is because it involves a person inside of your own body and is therefore first person because it doesn't involve any overt motor behavior that can be observed. Seeing yourself as a third party and watching yourself complete the cognitive task in your thoughts.

Figure 12. Cognitive task in the brain [29].

References

28. Rennie, L.J., P.R. Harris, and T.L. Webb, Visualizing actions from a third-person perspective: effects on health behavior and the moderating role of behavior difficulty. 2016. 46(12): p. 724-731.

29. Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA): An Innovative Methodology to Maximizing the Impact of Instructional Design and Training. Available from: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cognitive-task-analysis-cta-innovative-methodology-impact-mansour/.

(15): 01:23:53 Physical Skills, Motor Cortex & Cerebellum

Recent research has revealed that the primary motor cortex (M1) is essential for carrying out the quick and fleeting post-training phase of motor skill consolidation, which is known to result in an immediate improvement in performance [30]. Upper cortical neurons connect the primary motor cortex, which is located close to the front of our brain. They interact with lower motor neurons, which are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, via a series of neuronal connections. Proprioceptive feedback, or skin-based sensory inputs, are therefore present along the spinal cord. That explains how your limbs and other body components are related. Lower motor neurons generate movements and are also in charge of reflexive movements, which are already learned and require some input from the central pattern generator and other circuits. Motor neurons are found in the spinal cord and send impulses to the axon out to the muscles, releasing acetylcholine onto those muscles and allowing them to contract. Although neuroimaging has revealed startling evidence of the cerebellum's participation in several facets of cognitive processing, it is generally accepted that the cerebellum's primary function is in movement planning and coordination. Such a cognitive process as mental visualization is deeply ingrained in learning and memory, creative and imaginative inventiveness, etc. [31].

Internal forward models, which are cerebellar neural networks that may anticipate the sensory effects of motor commands, are thought to be conceptually responsible for this capacity. In order to measure the degree of corticospinal excitability and cerebellar-brain inhibition before and after a mental practice session or a control session, respectively, we used single and dual-coil transcranial magnetic stimulations. A sequential finger-tapping exercise was used to assess motor competence (i.e., accuracy and speed). We discovered that mental exercise improved both speed and precision. With decreased inhibition from the first to the second, the functional connection between the cerebellum and primary motor cortex altered concurrently. These findings demonstrate that the cerebellum undergoes neuroplasticity alterations, suggesting the participation of internal models during mental practice [32].

A recently created noninvasive brain stimulation technique for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric problems is repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Although the specific mechanism of action is still unclear, recent research suggests that it plays a part in the long-lasting stimulation and inhibition of neurons in particular brain regions. There is a need to create standardized procedures for its administration as there is increasing evidence supporting the use of rTMS as a therapeutic tool. Although its usage is restricted in those who have magnetic implants or have recently experienced a negative neurological or cardiac event, there have been no reports of any major side effects associated with rTMS. The strongest evidence supports the use of rTMS to treat refractory unipolar depression out of all psychiatric purposes [33].

Figure 13. Primary motor cortex [34].

References

30. Debarnot, U., E. Clerget, and E. Olivier, Role of the Primary Motor Cortex in the Early Boost in Performance Following Mental Imagery Training. PLOS ONE, 2011. 6(10): p. e26717.

31. Likova, L.T., K.N. Mineff, and S.C. Nicholas, Mental Visualization in the Cerebellum: Rapid Non-motor Learning at Sub-Lobular and Causal Network Levels. 2021. 15.

32. Rannaud Monany, D., et al., Mental practice modulates functional connectivity between the cerebellum and the primary motor cortex. iScience, 2022. 25(6).

33. Chail, A., et al., Transcranial magnetic stimulation: A review of its evolution and current applications. Ind Psychiatry J, 2018. 27(2): p. 172-180.

34. Motor cortex. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex.

(16): 01:31:15 “Go” & “No-Go” Pathways

One of the most important things about mental training and visualization is that it not only enhances "Go" aspects of motor performance but also "No Go" of motor performance, which is something to really understand about the performance of motor sequences both in the real world and in the imagined context. The faster we perform a motor sequence the more likely we are to perform incorrect components of a motor sequence. The basal ganglia, which are subcortical and located beneath the human brain's rough surface, are connected to the "Go and No Go" concept. "Go and No Go" activities involve the basal ganglia. Studies have emphasized the importance of the basal ganglia in non-declarative memory, such as procedural or habit learning, in contrast to the medial temporal lobes' well-known role in declarative memory. Recent major developments in a range of neuroscience domains suggest that the basal ganglia play a substantial role in motivation and decision-making [35].

Figure 14. Basal Ganglia [36].

References

35. Foerde, K. and D. Shohamy, The role of the basal ganglia in learning and memory: insight from Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Learn Mem, 2011. 96(4): p. 624-36.

36. Sejnowski, T., et al., Prospective Optimization. Proceedings of the IEEE, 2014. 102: p. 799-811.

(17): 01:34:19 Stop-Signal Task, Withholding Action

Training might improve response inhibition, and it worked best when paired with physical and motor imagery training. According to several research, physical training should be combined with motor imagery training to greatly increase response inhibition [35]. The Stop-Signal Task is a common behavioral test in cognitive psychology and neuroscience that assesses a person's capacity to suppress an instinctive or prepotent reaction. The goal of the task is to evaluate response inhibition—the capacity to halt an action in progress when an outside signal suggests that it is no longer suitable.

Two different trial types are generally used in the Stop-Signal Task: "go" trials and "stop" trials. In go trials, participants are told to react as rapidly and precisely as they can to a stimulus, such as a form or a phrase. On stop trials, participants are asked to hold off responding until they receive the stop signal, a second stimulus that occurs shortly after the first. By adjusting the time interval between the first stimulus and the stop signal, the difficulty of the task may be changed. Longer intervals make it more challenging to suppress the prepotent reaction. Researchers can evaluate a person's capacity to block spontaneous reactions and switch between various forms of cognitive control by monitoring the reaction time and accuracy of replies on both go and stop trials. The Stop-Signal Task has been used to examine the neurological underpinnings of inhibitory control and to research a variety of cognitive functions, including attention, working memory, and impulsivity. Both healthy people and those with a variety of neuropsychological and psychiatric conditions, such as ADHD and drug use disorders, have used the task [37].

When something is no longer suitable, the capacity to stop a prepotent or instinctive response is referred to as withholding action. For flexible and adaptable behavior in a continuously changing environment, this cognitive process is essential. Numerous behavioral tests have been used in cognitive psychology and neuroscience research to examine the capacity for restraint. The Go/No-Go task, which requires participants to respond to one type of stimulus (the Go stimulus) and withhold their response to another type of stimulus (the No-Go stimulus), is one of the most often utilized tasks. According to research, other cognitive functions including attention, working memory, and cognitive control are all intimately related to the capacity to restrain oneself from acting. The right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), in particular, has been identified as a critical area engaged in this process. The neurological basis of delaying action has also been widely researched. A variety of cognitive and psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), have been linked to impaired capacity to resist action. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that training in inhibitory control enhances performance on tasks that call for the delaying of action, indicating that this cognitive function is changeable through focused treatments [38].

Figure 15. Go/No-Go Task [39].

References

35. Foerde, K. and D. Shohamy, The role of the basal ganglia in learning and memory: insight from Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Learn Mem, 2011. 96(4): p. 624-36.

37. Logan, G.D. and W.B. Cowan, On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 1984. 91: p. 295-327.

38. Tracy, D.K., et al., It's not what you say but the way that you say it: an fMRI study of differential lexical and non-lexical prosodic pitch processing. BMC Neuroscience, 2011. 12(1): p. 128.

39. Go/No-go task. Available from: https://www.testable.org/experiment-guides/executive-function/go-no-go-task.
(18): 01:44:19 Aphantasia, Synesthesia; Social Cognition

An individual with aphantasia is unable to recall or produce mental pictures. Aphantasia prevents people from creating mental images in their mind's eye, yet they may still perceive other senses including sound, taste, and touch. The neurologist Adam Zeman and his colleagues published the first paper that this illness was ever documented in 2015. The incidence of aphantasia and its underlying causes are poorly known, and the condition is not officially classified as a unique diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). A gap between the visual cortex and other regions of the brain involved in processing images may be the origin of aphantasia, according to some studies, although further research is required to support this theory. Aphantasia can range in severity, with some people unable to produce any mental images at all while others may only be partially able to. Memory, creativity, and problem-solving are just a few of the cognitive functions that the illness may affect differently. Aphantasia research is still in its infancy, and there is still much to learn about it. But it has brought up significant issues regarding the nature of mental imagery and its function in various cognitive processes [40]. Also, a neurological disorder known as prosopagnosia, commonly referred to as face blindness, is characterized by the inability to recognize recognizable faces, particularly those of close friends and family members. People who have this syndrome may have normal visual perception and recall of other things, but they struggle to distinguish between and recognize faces. Prosopagnosia can be brought on by a number of sources, including genetics, brain injury, or aberrant developmental processes.

When one sensory or cognitive route is aroused, it might result in reflexive, unconscious experiences in another sensory or cognitive pathway, a phenomenon known as synesthesia. In other words, synesthetes may combine or overlap their senses, such as tasting certain flavors when they see certain shapes or hearing certain sounds while seeing certain colors [41]. Another research demonstrates that aphantasia is connected to poor visual imagery, although it can also be synesthesia, and those who have it also have characteristics of autism. And perhaps most significantly, those who have Aphantasia frequently have traits linked to autism.

Figure 16. Aphastasia test [42].

References

40. Zeman, A., M. Dewar, and S. Della Sala, Lives without imagery – Congenital aphantasia. Cortex, 2015. 73: p. 378-380.

41. Dance, C.J., et al., What is the relationship between Aphantasia, Synaesthesia, and Autism? Consciousness and Cognition, 2021. 89: p. 103087.

42. Aphantasia. Available from: https://twitter.com/Jo_Lumina/status/1628700947563126791.

(19): 01:52:58 Mental Training Practice & Benefits

The practice of mental training entails repeating a specific task, and if you do it frequently, you will get better at it. This process is known as metaplasticity; it is not just about activating the neuroplasticity of specific circuits, but also about improving the activation of plasticity. We also discussed the significance of drawing numerous parallels between mental training and real-world exercise. We also found that cognitive and motor learning are things that you should practice as much as possible in the real world, but if you are unable to do so due to an injury, mental training is a reasonable but insufficient replacement. If you are unable to practice in the real world due to an injury, mental training is going to be better than no training. The best way to become a master of a skill is to combine mental and physical training, but if you're trying to learn a new skill and find it difficult to perform it due to an impairment, physical training is the best alternative. Long-term depression of particular brain connections is on the rise, and sleep plays a crucial role in mental exercise and visualization. You should repeat a certain task if you're interested in increasing your mental training and visualization [43].

Figure 17. Mental training benefits [44].

References

43. Trautwein, F.-M., et al., Differential benefits of mental training types for attention, compassion, and theory of mind. Cognition, 2020. 194: p. 104039.

44. MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS FROM RESISTANCE TRAINING. Available from: https://fitnessfactory.com.sg/2012/03/08/mental-health-benefits-from-resistance-training/.

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