Measurements of [C ii] emission and dust emission from nine typical star-forming galaxies about one billion years after the Big Bang show that galaxies of this age have dust levels that are significantly lower than those of typical galaxies about two billion years later and comparable with those of local low-metallicity galaxies. Peter Capak et al. present sub-millimetre measurements of the 158 μm [C II] emission line that is a dominant cooling line for neutral gas — and of dust emission from nine typical star-forming galaxies at redshifts of 5 to 6, about one billion years after the Big Bang. They find that the dust levels in galaxies of this age are significantly lower than those found in typical star-forming galaxies about two billion years later, and comparable with those of local low-metallicity galaxies. The rest-frame ultraviolet properties of galaxies during the first three billion years of cosmic time (redshift z > 4) indicate a rapid evolution in the dust obscuration of such galaxies1,2,3. This evolution implies a change in the average properties of the interstellar medium, but the measurements are systematically uncertain owing to untested assumptions4,5 and the inability to detect heavily obscured regions of the galaxies. Previous attempts to measure the interstellar medium directly in normal galaxies at these redshifts have failed for a number of reasons6,7,8,9, with two notable exceptions10,11. Here we report measurements of the forbidden C ii emission (that is, [C ii]) from gas, and the far-infrared emission from dust, in nine typical star-forming galaxies about one billion years after the Big Bang (z ≈ 5–6). We find that these galaxies have thermal emission that is less than 1/12 that of similar systems about two billion years later, and enhanced [C ii] emission relative to the far-infrared continuum, confirming a strong evolution in the properties of the interstellar medium in the early Universe. The gas is distributed over scales of one to eight kiloparsecs, and shows diverse dynamics within the sample. These results are consistent with early galaxies having significantly less dust than typical galaxies seen at z < 3 and being comparable in dust content to local low-metallicity systems12.